
Class r^ l 
Book. 



l4 g« 



SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES 



SciENimcAMERKM 

HANDY BOOK 

OF 

FACTS AND FORMULAE 



Edited by 

ALBERT A. HOPKINS 



Editor of the Scientific American 
Reference Book, The Scientific 
American Cyclopedia of Formulas, 
Our Country and Its Resources, etc. 



With 

630 Illustrations 



MUNN & CO., INC. 
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE 

New York 
1921 






Copyright, 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 
1899. 1900, 1901, 1902. 1903, 1904. 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 
1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 
by MuNN & Co., Inc. All Rights Reserved. Both the subject 
matter and the arrangement will be strictly protected from 
infringers. 



lb 



printed in the United States of America. 



PREFACE 



WHEN a receipt or a table of weights and measures is wanted 
in a hurry there is generally a trip to a library and a search 
through old or indifferent authorities before the matter de- 
sired is secured. Each year the ''Scientific American" receives 15,000 
letters of inquiry and the query editor with a staff of four highly 
trained specialists, Engineers, Electricians, Chemists and all-around 
technicians deal with this enormous mass of correspondence. The 
reading of this vast number of letters shows what people really w^ant 
to know. Very generally the inquiries are inspired by a desire to 
improve themselves in their trade or profession, a most laudable 
desire, and assistance is freely afforded. It is on the basis of actual 
knowledge of what over 200,000 men really want that the present 
volume has been compiled largely from the successes which are the 
literary property of the publishers. Years of effort and considerable 
iums of money have been spent in securing the information which is 
aow presented in a form which is so usable and portable that even 
the enormous sales of the ''Scientific American Reference Book" and 
the "Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas" will be eclipsed. 
It is hoped that the usefulness of this little volume will obtain in 
the shop, the amateur's workshop and the home. It is essentially 
a book for men but if its success warrants it_, possibly a book of 
"Household" formulas may follow in due time. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I. 

Chapter I. Mechanical Movements 1-25 

Chapter II. Mechanical Powers 26- 29 

Chapter III. Geometrical Constructions 30- 47 

Chapter IV. Weights and Measures 48- 82 

PART II. 

Chemical Manipulations 83-149 

PART III. 

Chapter I. Alloys and Amalgams 153*176 

Chapter II. Cements, Etc 1 77-192 

Chapter III. Cleansing of Metals 193-206 

Chapter IV. Coloring of Metals 207-217 

Chapter V. Electrometallurgy, Etc 219-239 

Chapter VI. Glass 241-248 

Chapter VII. Heat Treatment of Metals 249-255 

Chapter VIII. Lubricants 257-263 

Chapter IX. Paints, Varnishes, Etc 265-284 

Chapter X. Rubber, Etc 285-291 

Chapter XI, Solders and Soldering 293-301 

Index 303-306 



PART I 



I. Meciianical Movements 

II. Mechanical Powers 

III. Geometrical Construction 

IV. Weights and Measures 



CHAPTER I. 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS 



TOOTHED GEAR. 

1. Spur Gears. — The ordinary form of 
toothed- wheel. The smaller of two inter- 
meshing gear-wheels whether a spur- or bevel- 
wheel is called a Pinion. 

2. Gear with Mortised Teeth.— This is 
what is ordinarily known as a Cog-wheel 
among machinists. The wheel is. ordinarily 
made of iron and the teeth of wood. 
j.^.-j^T^.^ Gear.— The face of this gear is 
divided mto sections with the teeth of the 
different sections arranged in steps; that is 
one in advance of the other. Step gear- 
wheels are useful in. heavy machinery as 
they give a practically continuous bearing 
between the'intermeshing teeth of the gear- 
wheels. 

4. Oblique Toothed Gear.— The teeth 
are cut diagonally across the working face of 
the wheel so as to give the gear-wheel a side 
thrust. In a double oblique toothed-gear, usu- 
ally called a V-toothed gear, the thrust in 
one direction is neutralized by an equal 
thrust in the opposite direction. As in the 
stepped-gear it gives a continuous bearing 
of the teeth. ^ 

5 Internal or Annular Gear.— The 
teeth are formed on the inner periphery of a 
ring This type of gear is used in heavy 
machinery, because it offers a greater hold 
for the teeth of the driving pinion. There is 
less sliding friction between the teeth than in 
the usual outside spur-gear and pinion. 

6. Star Wheel Gears.— The teeth are so 
formed as to permit an appreciable separation 
of the gear-wheels without preventing them 
from properly meshing one with the other. 
1 hese gears are used on wringing machines, etc. 

7 Elliptical Gears.— Due to their ellip- 
tical form, while the driving-gear rotates at 
constant speed, the other gear will be rotated 
at a variable speed. That is, its motion will 
tirst be accelerated and then retarded They 
are used in some machines to produce a slow 
powerful stroke followed by a quick return. 

8. Angular Gears.— These gears have a 
rectangular form and, as in the elliptical 
gears, they serve to transform uniform rotary 
movement into variable rotary movement. 
However this movement is more jerky than 
that produced by elliptical gears. Angular 
gears are very seldom used. 

.9. Lantern Gear.— The teeth consist of 
pms which he parallel with the axis of the 
gear-wheel, and are secured at their ends in 
two disks or gear heads. The pins are so 
spaced as to mesh with the teeth of a spur- 
gear, the lantern-gear permits limited slid- 
ing movement of the spur-gear along its axis. 
It can be very cheaply made, but is used chieflv 
tor light work, such '~-' ' ■ 



as clock mechanism, etc. 



10. Crown GEAfe.— The teeth project pci^ 
pendicularly from a side face of the wh. 
instead of lying in the plane of the whe 
When in mesh with the teeth of a spur-g( 
or a lantern-gear, it forms a cheap method 
transmitting power from one shaft to anotl 
lying at right angles thereto. Crown ge; 
are useful for light work, and were comm 
in old clock mechanisms. They used to 
known as Contrate wheels. 

11. BsyEL Gears. — The ordinary gear 1 
transmitting power from one shaft to s 
other at an angle thereto. When the whe 
are of the same size and operate on shaf 
lying at an angle of 45 degrees, one with t 
other, they areicalled Miter gears. 

12. Worm or Screw Gear.— An endU 
screw engages a spur-gear with spiral 
disposed teeth. The screw is called a won 
and the spur-gear a worm-wheel. A mu 
diminished but very JDowerful motion is coi 
municated from the worm to the worm-whe 
It is used in heavy machinery. 

13. Curved Worm Gear.— The worki 
face of the worm is curved so that a numb 
of teeth will be in mesh with the won 
wl^el, thus giving greater strength. It is 
difficult matter to cut the thread of tl 
worm correctly owing to its varying pitc 
Ihe gear is called the saw-tooth gear whi 
the teeth and thread are V-shaped, as illt 
trated. 

14. Spiral or Helical Gears— Tl 
teeth are spirally disposed on the working 
faces of the wheels so that they will transmit 
motion to shafts lying at right angles one 
with the other. 

oulk ^""vf-^ P^^^^;— The gears rotate on 
shafts wnich he in different planes and at an 
angle with each other. The drawing shows 
a skew spur-gear meshing with a bevel-gear. 
Ihe same term would apply to 'two bevel 
gears lying in different planes and at angles 
to each other. 

16. Rack and Pinion.— A spur-gear en- 
gages a toothed bar. Rectilinear motion is 
by this mechanism transformed to rotary 
motion or vice versa. It is quite common 
in heavy machinery to find a worm meshing 
with and driving a rack. 

17. Spherical or Globoid Gear. — A 
spiral thread is cut on a spherical body and 
naeshes with the spiral teeth of the spur 
pinion. The latter is so mounted that it may 
be swung to different positions on the spher- 
ical gear, thus varying its speed of rotation. 

18. Gear with Roller Teeth.— The 
teeth project from the flat face of the wheel, 
and consist of pins carrying rollers. This 
construction is used to reduce friction. 

• : PjN Wheel. —The f^at face of the gear 
IS studded with pms which are adapted to 



[1] 



(Toothed Gears) 



(Friction Gears) 



mesh with slots formed in the edge of a 
oinion. The pinion is so mounted that it can 
be moved toward or from the center of the 
pin wheel to vary its speed of rotation. When 
the pinion is moved past the center of the 
pin wheel its direction of rotation is reversed. 

20. Spiral Hoop Gear. — A spiral thread is 
formed on the flat face of the wheel and this 
meshes with a worm-wheel. The latter is 
moved forward one tooth at each complete 
rotation of the spiral hoop. This gives a 
powerful drive, though, of course, at a greatly 
diminished speed. 

21. Intermittent Gear or Geneva Stop. 
— The driving-wheel is provided with a single 
tooth adapted to engage one of a series of 
notches in the other wheel. At each com- 
plete rotation of the driving-wheel the other 
wheel is moved forward one notch but no 
more, due to the concave space between the 
notches which fits tlosely against the circum- 
ference of the other wheel. In the Geneva 
stop one of these spaces is formed with a 
convex outline, as illustrated. When this 
space is reached both wheels are prevented 
from further rotation forward. The Geneva 
stop is used on watches to prevent winding 
up the main spring too tightly. 

22. Intermittent Bevel Gear or Muti- 
lated Gear. — The teeth are formed only at 
intervals on the face of the gears. The 
space between the teeth in the driving-gear is 
convex, and that between the teeth in the 
other gear is concave, so that when the teeth 
are not in mesh with each other these 
convex and concave portions fit into each 
other and prevent the driven gear from mov- 
ing forwardunder its own momentum. 

23. Variable Gears. — The gear wheels 
are made up of gear sectors of different radial 
length, which, produce suddenly varying mo- 
tions of the driven gear due to the varying 
leverage between the wheels. The segments 
are arranged on different planes so as not to 
interfere one with the other. 

24. Scroll Gears. — The gears have a 
scroll form which produces a gradually in- 
creasing or decreasing speed during each 
rotation. These gears are also called cam 
gears. 

25. Elliptical Bevel Gears. — They pro- 
duce variable motion of a shaft lying at right 
angles to the driving shaft. This gear is 
used on bicycles to give increased power on 
the downstroke of the pedal and a quick 
movement on the return. 

26. Variable Pin Wheel. — A cone is pro- 
vided with pins arranged spirally thereon, and 
these mesh with teeth formed on the other 
cone. When one cone is rotated at a con- 
stant speed the other moves with a graduallv 
increasing or decreasing speed during each 
rotation. 

27. Cam-toothed Pinion. — The pinion 
consists of two oppositely disposed heart- 
shaped teeth, mounted side by side, on a 
shaft. The gear-wheel with which they 
mesh has teeth alternately arranged on oppo- 
site side faces. Due to the form of the 

Einion teeth, the gear-wheel is locked after 
eing moved forward by one tooth until the 
other tooth comes into mesh with a tooth 
on the other face of the wheel. 

28. Bevel Scroll Gear. — The gear-wheel 
consists of a bevel spiral scroll which meshes 
with a bevel pinion. As the spiral scroll 



rotates it causes the pinion to slide forward 
on its shaft, and thus varies its speed. 

FRICTION GEAR. 

29. Flat-faced Friction Gear. — A com- 
mon type of friction gear. The wheels are 
usually faced with rubber or leather to in- 
crease the frictional hold between the wheels. 
One of the wheels is journaled in bearings 
which can be adjusted toward the other 
wheel so as to increase the frictional engage- 
ment. 

30. Grooved Friction Gear, — The faces 
of the wheels are grooved so as to increase the 
bearing surface. The best results are ob- 
tained by pressing the wheels but slightly into 
engagement with each other, as this produces 
little loss of power by friction, 

31. Adjustable Friction Pinion. — The 
pinion is formed of a disk of rubber or other 
flexible material held between two washers. 
When these washers are tightened ■ together 
they press out the rubber between them, 
crowding it into closer contact with the V- 
groove of the gear with which it engages. 

32. Beveled Friction Gear. — Two cohe 
frustums are used to convey motion from one 
shaft to another at right angles thereto. 

33. Friction Drums. — The drums have 
concave faceS which permit them to transmit 
motion one to the other while lying at an 
acute angle with each other. - ^ 

34 to 40. Variable Speed Friction 
Gear. — 34, a pinion, engages the flat face of 
the friction disk. Variable motion is pro- 
duced by moving the pinion across the face 
of the disk. When the center of the disk ir. 
reached no motion is transmitted. Beyond 
the center the direction of motion transmitted 
is reversed. 35, Motion is transmitted from 
one friction disk to another lying parallel, but 
not in alignment therewith, through an inter- 
mediary pinion,. This pinion can be moved 
vertically to engage different points on the 
friction disks, and thus produce any desired 
variation in the speed transmitted. 36, Two 
convex friction disks are so arranged that one 
may be swung through an angle bringing dif- 
ferent points on its surface into contact with 
the face of the other disk. In this manner 
the speed of the motion transmitted is varied. 
This gear is used on sewing-machines,:.' 37. 
Two parallel friction disks are each jjrovided 
with an annular concavity. Motion is trans- 
mitted from one disk to the other by a friction 
pinion mounted between the disks, and so ar- 
ranged that it can be rotated to engage differ- 
ent points on the surfaces of the concavities, 
thereby varying the speed transmitted. 
38, A cone with concave face is engaged by a 
pinion which may be swung about a center 
to engage different points on the face of the 
cone. 39. Two cones with concave faces are 
mounted on shafts running at right angles to 
each other. Motion is transmitted from one 
cone to the other through a friction pinion 
mounted to swivel so as to engage different 
points on the faces of the cones. 40. Two 
friction cones are moimted on parallel shafts, 
and between them runs a friction pinion hav- 
ing two faces, one engaging the upper cone 
and the other engaging the lower cone. This 
provides a broad bearing surface. The 
pinion may be moved to different positions 
along the faces of the cones, and thereby pro- 
duce changes in the speed. 



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[3] 



CHAIN GEAR. 

41. Sprocket Wheel. — The wheel is pro- 
vided with teeth adapted to fit in between the 
links of a chain. The chain may be of the 
ordinary oval welded link type or of the flat 
riveted type used on bicycles. 

42. Link-belt Wheel. — ^The chain is 
made up of square links which are engaged 
by ratchet-shaped teeth on the chain wheel. 

43. Pocket Wheel. — The wheel is formed 
with pockets into which the links of the chain 
are adapted'to fit. 

44. SiDE-TOOTHED Wheel. — The wheel is 
formed with two sets of teeth between which 
the chain travels. The teeth bear against 
the ends of the outer links of the chain. 

45. Side and Center Toothed Chain 
Wheel. — This wheel is similar to that shown 
in Fig. 44, but has in addition a row of teeth 
along the center which bear against the cen- 
ter link of the chain. 

46. Toothed-link Chain and Wheel. — 
The links are formed with projecting teeth 
which fit into notches on the rim of the chain 

47. "Silent" Chain and Wheel. — Tkis is 
a special type of chain in which each link is 
formed with a tooth at each end. The teeth 
of adjacent links coact to completely fill the 
spaces between the teeth of the chain wheel. 
The construction is such as to produce a 
noiseless operation of the chain gear even at 
high speeds. 

48. Detachable Toothed-link Belt and 
Wheel. — Each link is formed with a tooth, 
which meshes with the teeth of the chain 
wheel. The construction of each link is such 
that it may be readily slipped into or out of 
engagement with the next link of the chain, 

ROPE GEAR. 

49. V-PuLLEY. — The ordinary type of pul- 
ley for roimd ropes or cables. Owing to the 
V-shaped construction of the pulley groove, 
the rope wedges tightly into engagement 
with the pulley. 

50. Pulley with Flexible Filling. — In 
order to secure frictional engagement of the 
cable with this pulley, the pulley groove is 
provided with rubber, leather, wooden, or 
other filling. 

51. Pulley with Ribbed Groove. — In 
this construction of pulley the required grip 
is produced by forming ribs in the bottom of 
a pulley groove. 

52. Pulley with Gripping Lugs. — The 
flanges of this pulley are formed with lugs 
which kink the rope or cable as shown, thus 
producing the required grip. 

53. Rope Sprocket-wheel. — An old form 
of rope gear used in hoists and the hke. 

54 and 55. Gripping Pulleys. — Gripping 
arms are provided which grip the cable at the 
point where the cable presses into the pulley. 
In 54 the gripping arms are wedged inward 
by the side walls of the pulley groove when 
pressed downward by the cable. These arms 
are normally h Id up by coil springs. In 55 
the cable is gripped by the toggle movement 
of hinged clips placed at intervals along the 
periphery of the pulley. 

56. Cable Sprocket-wheel. — The cable 
is provided with clamps which enter sockets 
formed in the cable wheel. This is a f9rm of 
cable gear commonly used at present m ele- 
vating and conveying machinery. 

[4] 



CLUTCHES. 

57. Common Jaw Clutch. — One member 
of the clutch is mounted f o slide on a feathered 
shaft, and the other member which is con- 
nected with the machinery is normally sta- 
tionary on this shaft. When the slidable 
member is moved forward the teeth on its 
forward edge intermesh with the teeth of the 
other member, setting the machinery in mo- 
tion. The slidable member is moved forward 
by means of a forked lever which is hinged to 
a split collar mounted loosely between flanges 
on the clutch memben 

58: Claw Clutch, — The slidable member 
of the clutch consists of a body portion with 
two claw arms which, when moved forward, 
are adapted to engage opposite sides of a bar 
on the other member of the clutch. 

59. Lever Clutch. — The slidable member 
is provided with a lever loosely hinged to its 
forward end. The other member of the 
clutch consists of a disk formed with ratchet 
teeth on its face. These are engaged by the 
hinged arm when the shaft rotates in one 
direction, but the arm moves freely over 
them when rotated in the opposite direction. 

60. Knee and Rose Clutch. — A crank 
arm is attached to the slidable member of the 
clutch, and engages a pin on an arm loosely 
hinged to the opposite member of the clutch. 

61. Ratchet Clutch. — The clutch mem- 
bers are formed with ratchet teeth, so that 
when the motion of the driving shaft is re- 
versed, the members will be disengaged. 

62. Pin Clutch. — The slidable member is 
provided with radial arms formed with pins 
at their outer ends which are adapted to enter 
sockets formed along the periphery of a disk 
on the opposite member of the clutch. 

63. Friction Disk Clutch. — The two 
clutch members are each formed w"ith disks 
preferably faced with rubber or leather, so 
that when pressed together their frictional 
engagement wOl cause a transmission of mo- 
tion from the rotating disk to the other. 

64. Friction Groove Clutch. — One of 
the clutch members is formed with a groove 
in its face to receive the lip of the other mem- 
ber which is cup-shaped. Both the lip and 
the side walls of the groove are slightly 
tapered to insure a close fit, even after the 
parts have been partly worn away by friction. 

65. Stud Clutch. — Engagement between 
the two members of the clutch is effected by 
means of a stud on each disk adapted to 
enter a notch formed in the periphery of the 
opposing disk. 

66. Friction Band Clutch. — One mem- 
t^r of the clutch consists of a pulley provided 
with a steel band which encircles and fits 
tightly on its periphery. The other member 
of the clutch consists of a lever provided with 
pins at its outer ends, which are adapted to 
engage the steel band. Since this band is not 
fastened to the pulley, any shock due to 
suddenly throwing the clutch members into 
engagement will be taken up by the steel band 
slipping on the face of the pulley, 

67. Friction Cone Clutch. — The clutch 
is made up of two cones, one adapted to fit 
into the other. The frictional engagement 
causes one to drive the other. 

68. Self-releasing Clutch. — The clutch 
disks are provided with inclined teeth, so that 
in case the resistance to the driven shaft in- 



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[5] 



( shaft Couplings ) 



(Ratchet Movements) 



creases beyond a certain degree, the clutch 
members will automatically move apart. 

69. Cam Clutch. — One of the members is 
cup shaped, and within this the other mem- 
ber operates. The latter comprises a number 
of cam-shaped arms hinged to a body portion, 
and so arranged that when moved in one 
direction they will bind agamst the inner 
wall of the drum, but when moved in the op- 
posite direction "they will be automatically 
disengaged therefrom. 

70. V-GROovED Clutch. — The clutch disks 
are formed with annular V-grooves adapted 
to fit into each other, and thus increase the 
friction surface of the clutch members. 

71. Expansion Clx tch. — The slidable 
member is provided with a number of mov- 
able ring segments connected by radial arms 
to the main body of the clutch and adapted 
to bear against the inner surface of the drum 
or cup which constitutes the other member of 
the clutch. When the slidable member is 
moved forward, by reason of the toggle ac- 
tion of the radial arms, the segments are 
brought into frictional engagement with the 
other member of the clutch. 

72. CoiLr-GRip Clitch: — The movable 
member of the clutch is formed with a num- 
ber of coils of steel in which there is a central 
conical opening. This is moved over the 
cone which constitutes the opposite member 
of the clutch, producing the required fric- 
tional engagement of the two members. 

ANGLE SHAFT COUPLINGS AND 
UNIVERSAL JOINTS. 

73. Crank and Hinged-pin Coupling. — 
A couplmg for shafts which lie at an angle to 
each oth^r. One shaft carries a hinged pin 
which fits into an opening in the outer end 
of a crank arm carried by the other shaft. 

74. Double-sleeve Angle Coi fling. — 
Each shaft carries a crank arm provided with 
a pin at its outer end, which lies parallel with 
its respective shaft. The two pins enter a 
coupling device consisting of two sleeves in- 
tegrally formed, but lying at an angle with 
each other which corresponds to the angle 
formed by the shafts. Through this double- 
sleeve coupling, motion is transmitted from 
one shaft to the other, the pins sliding back 
and forth in the sleeve openings. 

75. Cross-bar Angle Coupling. — This is 
used for coupling two parallel but offset 
shafts. Each shaft carries a yoke piece pro- 
vided with sleeves at its outer ends. The 
coupling member is a cross-shaped piece, its 
arms fitting into the sleeves of the yoke 
pieces, and permitting the necessary latere 1 
play as the shaft rotates. This form of 
coupling is also applicable to shafts which lie 
at an angle with each other. 

76. Pin and Slot CorPLiNC. — A crank 
pin ca.rried by one shaft engages a slot in a 
crank arm carried by the other shaft. The 
motion transmitted is variable, due to the 
fact that the leverage varies as the pin moves 
up and down in the slot. 

77. Ring-Gtmbal Universal Joint. — The 
ends of the shafts are provided with yoke 
members whose arms are pivoted to a ring- 
^imbal, the pivot pins of the two yoke pieces 
^ying at right angles to each other. This 
coupling will communicate motion at any 
angle under 45 degs. For angles of over 45 
degs. a double-Unk universal joint is used. 



78. Double- LINK Universal Jointt. — A 
link forked at each end is hinged to two rings', 
which are mounted in the yoke pieces on the 
ends of the shafts. In place of rings cross 
pieces such as shown m the illustration are 
often used. 

79. Hooke's Angular Coupling. — The 
shafts are connected by two double links 
which are arranged in the form of a parallelo- 
gram. Intermediate of the shafts the links 
are connected with ball-and-socket joints, 

80. Ball-and-socket Universal Joint. — 
Socket pieces are secured to the ends of the 
shafts, and these are provided with metal 
bands which encircle the ball that constitutes 
the coupling member. The bands enter 
grooves in the ball which lie at right angles to 
each other. 

81. "Almond" Angular Coupling. — A 
side view ol the coupling is shown at I and a 
plan view at 2. Between the shafts to be 
coupled is a fixed stud on which a bell crank 
is mounted to turn. The bell crank is per- 
mitted to slide axially on the stud. The 
bell crank is connected at the ends by ball- 
-and-socket joints with links attached to the 

ends of the shafts. Now, as the power shaft 
rotates, rotary motion will be communicated 
to the other shaft through the bell crank, 
which will rock and also slide axially on the 
stud. 

82. Flexible Shaft. — Two shafts are con- 
nected by a flexible shaft consisting of a coil 
spring, or a metal tube in which a helical saw- 
slot has been cut. This flexible shaft will 
permit transmission of motion through a 
wide angular range. 

83. Linked Flexible Shaft. — The flex- 
ible shaft is made up of a series of links 
coupled together with universal joints. A 
coil. spring iits loosely over the links and pre- 
vents them from kinking. . This spring in 
turn is covered with a flexible tube. The 
shaft will transmit motion about almost any 
curve or angled It can be used for heavy 
work. 

84. Right-angle Coupling. — The ends of 
the shafts are formed with heads in which are 
drilled a number of sockets. A series of rods, 
each bent to form a right angle, enter thesf; 
slots and form the coupling links between the 
shafts. As the shafts rotate these rods slide 
in and out of their sockets. 

RATCHET MOVEMENTS. 

85. The teeth of a ratchet wheel are en 
gaged by a pawl hinged to a rocking arm. 
The ratchet wheel is rotated only on the 
forward stroke of the arm. 

86. A rocking lever carries two pawls, one 
on each side of its fulcrum. The wheel is 
rotated both by the downward and the return 
stroke of the lever; for while one pawl is 
rotating the wheel, the other swings to posi- 
tion to take a new hold on the ratchet wheel. 
The rotation of the ratchet wheel is thus 
kept nearly constant. 

87. A ratchet crown-wheel or rag-wheel 
is engaged by pawls depending from two 
arms loosely pivoted on the axle of the 
ratchet-wheel. These two arms are con- 
nected by links to a common power arm. 
Rectilinear reciprocating movement of the 
latter in the fine of the arrow produces an 
almost Constant rotation of the ratchet- 

I wheel. 



[6] 



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Copyii-ght, 1904, by Munn & Co. 



[7] 



(Ratchet Movements) 



(Escapements) 



88. The action of this ratchet mechanism 
is very similar to that shown in Fig. 86, 
except that the pawls are hooked and 
ratchet-wheel is rotated by an alternating 
pulling rather :than pushing action of the 
pawls. 

89. This is a modification of the principle 

{)ictured in Fig. 88, and shows a rocking 
ever with two pawls hinged thereon en- 
gaging a ratchet rack. 

90. Another modification of the principle 
shown in 88. The rocking lever is mounted 
on a fixed stud and is provided at the center 
with a pin which enters a glot in a ratchet 
bar. The latter is formed with ratchet 
teeth on its opposite edges which are en- 
gaged by hooked pawls p.ivoted on the 
roicking lever. These pawls are cro.«!sed, as 
shown, so that they vvill be kept by grav- 
ity in constant engagement with the ratchet 
teeth. Now, when the lever is rocked the 
pawls will alternately act, to lift the ratchet 
bar. 

91. A common construction used for 
rotating a ratchet-wheel against a spring 
resistance. A dog mounted on a fixed 
pivot drops by gravity or by spring pressure 
against the ratchet teeth and holds the 
wheel from turning while the pawl is being 
bwung back for a iresh hold on the ratchet- 
wheel. 

92. This shows the method of rotating an 
ordinary spur gear-wheel by means of a 
pawl. The pawl is provided with a tooth 
at its outer end which fits between the 
teeth of the gear. The pawl is hinged to 
the lower arm of the bell-crank lever 
mounted on the gear shaft. The operating 
lever also mounted on this shaft is permitted 
a certain amount of play between two pins 
oh the shorter arm of the bell crank-lever. 
A rod connects the operating lever with the 
pawl. When the lever is raised it first lifts 
the pawl out of engagement with the gear, 
then, coming in contact with the upper pin 
on the bell crank-lever, it moves the pawl 
and bell crank back to the desired position. 
On lowering the operating lever the pawl is 
first brought into engagement with the gear 
and then the lower pin on the bell crank is 
encountered, and the gear is caused to ro- 
tate. This arrangement prevents wearing 
away of the teeth — a common defect in the 
ordinary type of ratchet mechanism. 

93. The pawl is kept in contact with the 
ratchet-wheel by the weight of the lever on 
which it is formed. By pulling the rope 
attached to the end of the lever the pawl 
will be drawn out of engagement with the 
ratchet-wheel, and the latter will be turned 
by friction of the rope on the wheel hub. 

94. A reversible spur-gear ratchet me-, 
chanism. Mounted on the shaft which 
carries the spur-gear is a bell crank-lever. 
This at one end carries a double-toothed 

fiawl, one of which teeth meshes -with the 
eeth of the gear. The pawl is so shaped 
that it will withdraw the tooth from engage- 
ment with the gear teeth on the return 
stroke of the lever. When it is desired to 
reverse the direction of rotation, the pawl is 
moved over to the position shown in dotted 
lines, bringing its other tooth into engage- 
. ment with the gear reeth. 

95. The ratchet-wheel is intermittently 
rotated by the oscillation of a lever which 
carries a spring-pressed pawl. On the up- 



ward stroke the ratchet is turned by the 

f)awl which is backed by a shoulder on the 
ever. On the return stroke a dog holds the 
ratchet-wheel from turning while the pawl 
snaps 'past. 

"96. Ratchet teeth are formed on a ball 
which rests in a socket formed at the end of 
a lever. A spring pawl on this lever en- 
gages .the ratchet teeth at any position of 
the lever. This construction is useful for 
ratchet braces which have to be operated la 
inconvenieil't places. 

97. A device for converting rotary motion 
into vibratory motion. A spring-pressed pin 
engages the teeth of a' revolving crown- 
wheel ratchet, ^.nd is thereby caused to 
vibrate. 

98. A device for converting recipro- 
cating motion into intermittent rotary 
motion. The crown-wheel ratchet is inter- 
mittently rotated by a reciprocating lever 
carrying a pawl which engages the ratchet 
teeth. 

99. Internal ratchet used on ratchet 
braces, etc. The drill 'spindle carries a 
number of spring-pressed pawls which bear 
against the internal ratchet teeth formed in 
the handle of the brace. 

100. Ball ratchet device for lawn mow- 
ers, etc. In the hub of a wheel is a groove in 
which a ball is carried. A spring presses this 
ball down against a shaft on which the wheel 
turns. When the wheel rotates forward, the 
ball wedges in between the shaft and the 
groove, causing the shaft to turn with the 
wheel. When the direction of rotation is 
reversed, the ball is forced up against the 
spring, releasing the shaft. 

ESCAPEMENTS. 

101. Recoil Escapement. — This is a com- 
mon form of escapement used on clocks. The 
pallets carried by the pendulum are so 
mounted that when a tooth of the escape 
wheel, which is driven by the clock-train, is just 
escaping from one of the pallets, another tooth 
falls on the other pallet near its point. As the 
pendulum swings on, however, the taper face 
of the pallet bearing against the tooth causes 
the escape wheel to turn slightly backward. 
As the pendulum swings back, it receives an 
impulse from the escape wheel which is greater 
by reason of this recoil. The principal value 
of the recoil, however, is to overcome any un- 
evenness in the pressure exerted by the train^ 
which might otherwise stop the clock. 

102. Drad-beat Escapement. — A form of 
eseapement used on the best clocks. The teeth 
of the escape wheel fall * 'dead ' ' upon the pal- 
lets, that is, the pallets are .so cut that as the 
pendulum continues to swing they slide on 
the teeth without turning the escape wheel 
backward. The ends of the pallets are formed 
with inclined faces, termed "impulse faces," 
against which the teeth of the escape wheel 
bear when giving impulse to the pendulum. 
The value of this escapement lies in the fact 
that it gives a very even beat of the pendulum 
even when there is a .slight variation In the 
force exerted by the clock tram. 

103. Lever Escapement. — This is an es- 
capement used on watches. The anchor on 
which the pallets are carried is secured to £. 
lever, formed with a notch in one end. This 
notch is engaged by a pin on the arbor of the 
balance wheel. The teeth of the escape whetl 
alternately bear against the inclined faces oi 



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(Escapements) 



(Gearing) 



the pallets and oscillate the lever, which turns 
the balance wheel alternately in opposite 
directions. 

104'. Verge Escapement.— A form of es- 
capement used in old-fashioned watches. The 
escape wheel is a crown wheel, and its teeth, 
on opposite sides, are engaged by two pallets, 
carried on the shaft of the balance wheel. The 
escapement teeth, acting alternately on the 
pallets, lift and clear them, thus rocking the 
shaft and balance wheel, which governs the 
'frequency of the escape. 

105. Star Wheel. Escapement. — The es- 
cape has but few teeth and is, therefore, called 
a star wheel. The pallets act, on teeth that 
lie diametrically opposite each other. This 
escapement has a dead-beat action. 

106. Crown Tooth Escapement. — An old 
form of recoil escapement, in which a crown 
e.'scape wheel is used. The pallets are mount- 
ed to engage opposite sides of the wheel. This 
type is objeotionable, owing to the fact that 
the pendulum must oscillate through a very 
wide angle in order to permit the teeth to 
escape from the pallets, which requires a 
greater pressure in the clock-train and heavier 
parts and produces greater friction on the 
pallets. 

107. Lantern Wheel Escapement. — An 
old-fashioned type of escapement, in which 
the escape wheel is a lantern wheel, and the 
pallets are two plates set at angles on a rock- 
ing arm. 

108. Pin- wheel Escapement. — A dead- 
beat eecapement used in many of the best 
turret clocks. The escape wheel is formed 
with pins which drop on to the "dead" faces 
of the pallets, but give impulses to the pen- 
dulum by sliding off the inclined "impulse" 
faces of the pallets. It is found best in prac- 
tice to cut the "dead" faces so as to give a 
very slight recoil. 

109. Old-fashioned Crown V/heel. Es- 
capement. — This, in appearance, is quite sim- 
ilar to the escapement shown in Figure 106, 
but is different in action. The inclined faces 
of the teeth, which are very long, act to lift 
the pallets. 

110. Ring Escapement. — A form of * ' dead- 
b^at" escapement. The pallets are formed 
oh the inside of the ring, within which the 
escape wheel turns. 

Ill and 112. Gravity Escapements. — A 
type of escapement in which the impulse from 
the escape wheel is not given directly to the 
pendulum, but through the medium of two 
weights, usually the arms on which the pallets 
are carried and which are alternately lifted by 
the escape wheel and dropped against the pen- 
dulum. Figure 111 shows the four-legged 
gravity escapement used on turret clocks. 
The escape wheel is formed with four legs or 
teeth, and carries eight pins, four on one face 
of the hub and four on the other. The pal- 
let arms are pivoted as near as possible to the 
point from which the pendulum swings. The 
pallets which are formed on these arms are 
arranged to lie one on one side and the other 
on the other side of the escape wheel. The 
pallet arms are each provided with a stop 
piece against which the teeth of the escape- 
ment will alternately rest. In the, illustra> 
tion, a tooth of the escape wheel is resting 
against the stop on the right-hand arm. As 
the pendulum swings toward the right, the 
tooth will escape /rom the stop, permitting 
the wheel to rotate until it encounters the 



stop on the left-hand arm, at the same time 
a pin on the wheel engages the end of the 
pallet at the left, and Ufts the pallet ,a.rm. In 
the meantime the right-hand pallet arm swings 
with the pendulum to the end of its stroke, 
but falls with it on the return . stroke imtil 
stopped by a pin on the escape wheel. It 
will be evident that the angle through which 
the pallet arm falls with the* pendulum is 
greater than that through which it is lifted by 
the pendulum, and it is this difference in 
travel which gives impulse to the pendulum. 
Figure 112 shows a double, three-legged ot- 
capement which is used for very large clocks. 
Two three-legged escape wheels are used with 
three lifting pins held between them like the 
pins of a lantern wheel. The pallets operate 
between the wheels. A stop piece is placed on 
one of the pallet arras for the forward wheel, 
and the other arm carries a stop for the rear 
wheel. The teeth of one wheel are set 60 
degrees it. advance of the other. The action 
is similar to that of the four-legged escape- 
ment. A tooth of the forward wheel is shown 
resting on its- stop. When this is released by 
the swinging pendulum, the wheels rotate, 
lifting the left-hand pallet until a tooth of the 
rear wheel engages its stop. The right pallet 
arm, however, continues to be lifted by the 
pendulum, and then falls with it, giving it 
impulse until arrested by a lifting pin, only 
to be lifted again when the pendulum releases 
the rear wheel from its stop. 

GEARING. 

113. A m^«w Tc: changing rectilinear recip- 
rocating jnoiion i,o rotary reciprocating motion 
and vice \ersa. Two intermeshing pinions 
engage internal racks formed on opposite sides 
of a frame. 

114. Means for changing rotary motion to 
rectilinear reciprocating motion. A rotating 
sector or pinion formed with teeth on only a 
portion of its periphery imparts reciprocating 
motion to a rack frame by first engaging the 
teeth at one side of the rack, and then the 
teeth on the other side of the rack. See Fig- 
ure 1 15 for gravity return. 

115. Another method of converting rotary 
motion into rectilinear reciproca,ting motion. 
A rotating sector engages the teeth of a rack 
during a part of its rotation and thereby lifts 
the rack, but as soon as the rack clears the 
sector teeth, it drops by gravity, ready to be 
lifted up when it again encounters the teeth 
of the sector. See Figure 114 for power re- 
turn. 

116 A movement designed as a substitute 
for a crank. The rack frame is formed with 
internal racks on opposite sides, but these 
racks lie in different planes. Two separate 
pinions are employed which mesh respectively 
with these racks. The pinions are mounted 
loosely on a shaft, but carry pawls which en- 
gage with ratchet wheels secured to the shaft. 
On the forward stroke of the rack frame the 
pinions will both be rotated but in opposite 
directions. However, due to their ratchet 
and pawl connection with the shaft, only one 
pinion turns the shaft. On the return stroke 
the rotation of the pinions will be reversed 
but the shaft wiU continue to rotate in the 
same direction- driven this time by the other 
pinion of the pair. 

117. Sun and Planet gearing. A gear 
wheel, called the "sun" wheel, rotating on a 
fixed e inter, is engaged by a gear wheel called 



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(Gearing) 



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the planet wheel, which revolves about the 
sun wheel. This construction was used by 
James Watt in one of his steam engines as a 
substitute for a crank. The planet wheel was 
rigidly secured to the connecting rod and con- 
nected by an arm to the center of the sun wheel. 
At each complete revolution of the planet 
wheel about the sun wheel, the latter was 
caused to rotate twice. 

118 and 119. Means for converting rotary 
motion into irregular reciprocal motion. In 
•118 two intermeshing spur gears are provided 
with crank arms connected by a working 
beam. If the gears are of equal size the mo- 
tion transmitted to the rod secured to the 
working beam will be uniform. If, however, 
the gears are of different sizes, the motion of 
this rod will vary greatly. In 119 a still more 
complex movement is produced, since there 
are three intermeshing gear wheels of unequal 
sizes and two connected working beams. 

120. Irregular oscillatory motion is given 
to a hinged arm by pivoting at its outer end 
a cam -shaped gear wheel which is rotated by 
a continuously driven pinion. Any desired, 
motion of the arm may be produced by vary- 
ing the shape of the cam gear. 

121. Means for converting uniform rotary 
r"otion into variable rotarv motion. An 
elliptical gear rotates at uniform speed and 
drives a spur pinion. The latter is secured to 
a shaft which slides between the arms of two 
forked levers. A spring keeps the pinion in 
mesh v/ith the elliptical gear. 

122. Means for converting constant rotary 
motion into intermittent rotary motion. The 
driving wheel is formed with teeth through a 
portion of its periphery equal to the toothed 
periphery of the pinion. The latter is cut 
away at one place to fit the plane portion of 
the driving wheel. This prevents the pinion 
from rotating until a pin on the wheel strikes 
a projecting arni on the pinion and guides the 
teeth of the gears into mesh with each other. 

123. Means for converting uniform rotary 
motion into variable rotary motion. A crown 
wheel eccentrically mounted is driven bj^ a 
pinion rotating at uniform speed. The point 
of engagement of the crown wheel with the 
pinion varies radially, causing the wheel to 
rotate at a variable speed. 

124. The mechanism is so arranged as to im- 
part planetary movement to a pinion. An 
internal gear wheel formed with a pulley 
groove in its periphery is mounted to rotate 
on a sleeve which carries a spur gear at one 
end and a pulley at the other. The gear 
wheels are belted to a driving pulley in such 
manner, as to rotate in opposite directions. 
A spur pinion which fits in between the teeth of 
the two gears is rotated thereby on its own 
axis and revolves about the center of the two 
gears at a speed which is the differential of 
the speeds of the two gears. 

125. The construction here shown is adapted 
to produce a slow forward movement of a rack 
with a quick return. The rack is mounted to 
slide longitudinally and is driven by a toothed 
sector. The latter is provided with a slotted 
arm which is engaged by a pin on a rotating 
disk. The forward movement will take place 
while the pin is passing through the larger 
arc subtended by the two dotted radial lines 
3hown, and there turn while the pin is pass- 
ing through the smaller arc. 

. 126. A means for converting reciprocating 
{motion into continuous rotary motion. A 



double-faced reciprocating rack engages firs* 
one and then the other of a pair of toothed 
sectors. The sectors are mounted on a pair 
of shafts, disposed on opposite sidei? of the 
rack. The shafts carry pinions which engage 
opposite sides of the central gear wheel. The 
rotary motion alternately imparted to the 
sectors, is conveyed through these pinions to 
the gear wheel, each pinion alternately acting 
to drive the wheel when its respective sector 
is in mesh with the rack, and then to be 
driven ^ by the gear wheel until its sector is 
brought again in mesh with the rack. Thus 
a continuotis rotary motion is produced. 

127 Mechanism for converting unifomi 
rotary motion into irregular rotary motion. 
Mounted eccentrically on the driving shaft is 
a gear wheel which transmits motion to an- 
. other gear wheel through "an intermediate 
pinion. Pivoted to the centers of the two 
gear wheels are two links whose outer ends 
are connected by a hinge pin on which -the 
pinion rotates. These links serve to hold the 
pinion constantly in mesh with the gep.rs,^ no 
matter what the position of the eccentric is. 

128. Means for converting uniform rotary 
motion-into variable reciprocating motion. A 
rack frame moimted to slide longitudinally is 
driven by an eccentric-toothed sector. The 
racks are placed at an angle with the line of 
movement and are provided with jaws at each 
end adapted to mesh with pins projecting 
above the face of the sector. As the sector 
rotates it transmits a gradually accelerated 
longitudinal movement to the rack frame 
until the outer pin engages the jaw at the end 
of the rack. The rack frame is then driven 
by this pin until the opposite rack is engaged 
by the sector teeth. 

129 to 132. Mangle Gears.— So-called be- 
cause of their use on mangle machines. -129. 
The larger wheel is formed with a cam groove 
which guides the pinion. The shaft of the 
latter is ordinarily provided with a universal 
joint, which permits it to move vertically and 
thus k^p in mesh with the crown, teeth 
formecT on the large wheel. The pinion 
meshes first with the outer and then with the 
inner ends of the teeth on the larger gear, 
driving the latter first in one direction and 
then in the other. 130 shows another form 
of the same moveinent. The pinion moves 
radially in the slot shown in dotted lines, and 
engages first the out«r and then the inner line 
of teeth on the mangle wheel, causing the 
latter to rotate first in one direction and then 
in the other. 131. The mangle wheel ^ is 
formed with an internal gear, and the pinion 
is guided by a cam groove. This construc- 
tion and that shown in Figure 130 produce 
uniform motion through an almost complete 
rotation, and this is followed by a quick re- 
turn due to the smaller radius of the inner 
circle of teeth. 132. In this construction, as in 
that of Figure 129, the same speed is main- 
tained in both directions of rotation. The 
mangle wheel in Figure 132 is formed with 
teeth on both faces; the pinion first engages 
the teeth on one face of the wheel, and then 
passing through the opening engages the 
teeth on the opposite face, thus reversing the 
direction of rotation. 

133 to 137. DrFFERENTTAL Gear, — 133. Two 
worm wheels, one of which has more teeth 
than the other, engage a single worm. Sup- 
pose that one whefl has 100 teeth and the 
other has 101: then at every complete rota- 



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(Cams) 



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♦.ion of the latter wheel it will be one tooth 
lehind the former wheel, and at the end of 
100 rotations the former would have made a 
complete rotation relative to the latter. If the 
worm be cut with a single thread it would have 
to make 100 times 101, or 10,100 rotations in 
order to produce this result. This construc- 
tion is used, on certain counting devices. 
134. Two bevel gears are connected by a pair 
of small bevel pinions mounted in a frame, as 
shown in the side elevation 1. If the gear 
wheels should be rotated at different veloci- 
ties the frame would rotate at the mean veloc- 
ity. 135. A rapidly rotating shaft carries a 
gear wheel eccentrically mounted thereon. 
The latter is carried along into engagement 
with a fixed internal gear ocrack, and is there- 
by rotated at a slow speed. 136. Two con- 
centrically mounted bevel gears of different 
diameters engage with a third bevel gear. 
The latter rotates at the mean of the velocities 
of the other two. 137. A hollow screw threaded 
into a frame is formed with an internal thread, 
of slightly different pitch, adapted to receive a 
smaller screw, which is so mounted in the 
frame that it may slide longitudinally, but 
cannot rotate. If the larger screw should 
have ten threads to the inch, and the smaller 
screw eleven, the latter would move outward 
one-eleventh part of an inch while the former 
was fed inward an inch. 

138. Uniform rotary motion converted into 
recij>rocating rectilinear motion. A rack 
frame arranged to slide longitudinally is en- 
gaged by a toothed sector which meshes with 
the teeth on one side of the rack to drive the 
frame forward, and then with the teeth on 
the other side to drive the frame back. 

139. Variable speed gear for producing fast 
and slow motion. It comprises two pairs of 
toothed sectors so arranged as to properly 
mesh with each other. The driving gear 
shown at the right is provided with two arms 
which carry studs fit their outer ends. These 
studs lie below the lower face of the gears and 
engage studs formed on the lower face of the 
■driven gear, as shown in dotted lines, thus 
guiding the wheels after one pair of sectors 
have moved out of mesh and before the other 
pair have come into mesh with each other. 

140. Mechanism for producing increased 'or 
decreased speed on the same line of shafting. 
A fixed bevel gear wheel. A, meshes with two 
bevel gear whfeels. B, which in turn mesh 
with a pinion, E, carried on the right-hand 
shaft. The bevel wheels, B, are mounted in 
a bracket which turns freely on the shaft of 
pinion, E. Each wheel, B, carries a pinion, 
C which meshes with a bevel gear wheel, Z), 
carried by the left-hand shaft. The change 
of speed from one shaft to the other is due 
to the planetary movement of the wheels, B 
and C. When the multiple of the teeth in A 
and C exceeds that of B and D the shafts 
will rotate in opposite directions.. 

CAMS AND CAM MOVEMENTS. 
141 and 142. Cylinder or Drum Cams. — 
In Figure 141 a groove is formed in the curved 
face of a cylinder or drmn. A roller on the 
end of a pivoted arm fits into this groove. 
As the drum rotates the arm will be swung to 
various positions, guided by the groove in the 
cam. In Figure 142 the roller bears against 
the rita of the cylinder, which is made of such 
shape as to give the desired motion to the 
lever. In this form of cam, while the roller 



is positively moved down by the cam rim, it 
is raised up by a spring on the lever, which 
tends to hold it constantly against the cam. 
In the first type of cam the motion is positive 
in both directions. 

143. Beveled Cam. — This form of cam is 
used to give motion to a lever whose axis lies 
at an angle with the cam-shaft. The cam is 
of conical form with curved edges against 
which the lever bears. In our illustration we 
have shown a sliding rod in place of a rocking 
lever. The conical face, it will readily be 
seen, must lie parallel with the plane of the 
rod. 

144. Face Cam. — The cam groove is cut in 
the face of a disk, and this on being rotated 
guides the movement of the rocking lever 
which carries a roller that enters this groove. 

145. Clover-leaf Cam. — This is a form of 
disk cam which gives a positive drive to a 
sliding lever. The cam acts between two 
rollers on the lever, and is so cut as to exactly 
fill the space between these rollers at all times. 

146. Heart Cam. — Another lorm of disk 
cam. This is so cut as to give uniform recti- 
linear motion to a sliding rod which bears 
against its edge. To lay out this cam, divide 
the desired line of travel of the rod into any 
convenient number of equal spaces, starting 
from the center of the roller, and from the 
center of the cam describe arcs passing through 
the dividing points. Twice the "number of 
radial lines should be laid off from the center 
of the cam, the lines being equally spaced an- 
gularly. The successive points of intersec- 
tion, of the radial lines and the arcs will then 
mark the centers for a series of arcs v/ith radii 
equivalent to the radius of the roller. The 
curve drawn tangent to these arcs will then 
mark the outline of the cam. 

147. Means are here shown for converting 
rotary motion into alternating reciprocating 
motion of two rods. The rods are attached 
to pivoted levers carrying rollers which bear 
against the edges of two oval disk cams 
mounted on a rotating shaft. 

148. Rotary motion is here converted into 
variable rectilinear motion. The end of a 
sliding lever rests on the irregular edge of a 
disk cam, and is there by caused to move up- 
and down following the irregularities of the 
cam. The cam shown gives three recipro- 
cations of the rod for each rotation of the cam 
shaft. 

~ 149. Means for converting rotary motion of 
a shaft into rocking motion of a lever. The 
lever is caused to rock by a cam with an ob- 
lique face on which the roller of the lever 
bears. This is a modification of the motion 
shown in Figure 142. 

150. Means for converting rocking motion 
of a shaft into uniform rectilinear motion of a 
rod. The rod, which is mounted to slide in 
bearings, carries a pin which engages a slot in 
the cam on the rocking shaft. The cam slot 
is so cut as to give uniform motion to the rod. 

151. Continuous rotary motion of a shaft is 
here converted into intermittent reciprocating 
motion of a slide. A cam lever hinged at its 
lower end to a fixed point is connected by a 
rod at its upper end, to the slide. A crank 
arm on the rotating shaft carries a pin which 
enters a curved slot in the cam lever. The 
crank arm causes the lever to rock, carrying 
the slide with it. The cam slot should form 
an arc with a radius equal to that of the crank 
arm, so that while the crank pin is passing 



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through this arc the slide will remain station- 
ary. This motion is used on certain types of 
sewing machines and printing presses. 

152. The type of cam used on the needle 
bars of some sewing machines. A pin on a 
rotating disk engages a slot in a cam yoke on 
the needle bar. This slot is formed with a 
curve at one place, which holds the bar sta- 
tionary, while the pin is passing through it. 
This causes the needle to s£op while the shut- - 
tie passes. 

153. This cam motion differs from that of 
Figure 152, in that it causes the sliding bar to 
8top midway of its upward stroke and midway 
of its downward stroke. The cam slot com- 
prises two parallel sections connected by two 
curved sections. While the pin on the rotat- 
ing disk passes through the curved sections 
the bar is held stationary. 

154. The cam here shown causes the sliding 
bar to stop at the end of each stroke. The 
cam is triangular, "with curved faces, and 
rotates between the two parallel working 
faces of a cam frame on the sliding bar. While 
the outer face of the cam engages the frame 
the bar is held stationary. This is a form of 
cam motion used in place of an eccentric for 
operating the valve of a certain French engine. 

155. A peculiar varip.ble intermittent mo- 
tion of the sliding rod is given by the planetary 
action of a cam mounted on a rotating disk. 
The cam shaft passes tAirough the disk and 
carries a pinion which meshes with a station- 
ary internal gear wheeL 

156. A rectangular motion is imparted to 
the cam frame'by two triangular Curved cams 
mounted oti a rotating shaft. The frame is 
mounted to slide laterally in bearings, which 
in turn are permitted to slide vertically in 
grooves on two stationary supports. The 
frame is madp up of two horizontal rails on 
which one of the cams acts, and two vertical 
rails on which the other cam acts The illus- 
tration shows the frame about to be moved 
downward by the forward cam acting on the 
lower rail while the rear cam prevents any 
lateral movement. On the next quarter rota- 
tion of the cam shafts a lateral movement will 
ensue, due to the rear cam acting on the right- 
hand vertical rail. At the same time the for- 
ward cam will hold the frame against vertical 
movement. Dviring the third quarter of the 
rotation the frame will be lifted, arid during 
the last quarter it will be moved back laterally 
to the position illustrated. If the cams are 
both of the same size, the motion of the frame 
will trace a perfect square. 

157. Means for converting rotary motion 
into vibrating motion. A forked lever en- 
gages opposite edges of a disk cam, and is 
thereby caused to vibrate. This cam, as that 
in Figure 145, is so cut that its opposite edges 
are everywhere equidistant when measured 
through the center. For this reason it is ob- 
vious that such a cam must always be cut 
with an odd niunber of projections. 

158. A recently patented mechanism for 
imparting power to the dasher shaft of a 
churn. A rocking inovsment is imparted to 
the shaft from a rotating cam. At the upper 
end of the shaft is a forked piece or follower 
mounted to turn in a socket at right angles to 
the axis of the shaft. The follower engages 
a spline on the cam and is thereby guided 
first to one side, and then to the other of the 
cam. rocking the ahaft on its axis. 



159. Trammel Gear.— A reciprocating move- 
ment of the rod is produced by the rotation of 
a shaft, and vice versa. Pivoted to the rod 
are two blocks which slide respectively in two 
slots in the face of the disk which cross 
each other at right angles. This movement 
was patented seventy years ago, but is con- 
stantly being reinvented as a substitute for 
the crank. 

160. Mechanism for converting rotary mo- 
tion into reciprocating motion. This is a com- 
mon form of eccentric used on steam engines, 
etc., for communicating a reciprocating mo- 
tion to the valves from the crank shaft. The 
fod is provided with a circular strap which is 
bolted over a disk or ring eccentrically 
mounted on the crank shaft. 

161. This form of eccentric is similar to that 
shown in Figure 160, but an oval cam frame 
or yoke is used in place of a circular strap, so 
as to produce a rectilinear reciprocating move- 
ment of the rod. This form of eccentric acts 
directly on the valve rod which travels be- 
tween fixed guides. 

162. Spiral Cam for converting rotary mo- 
tion into reciprocating motion. The cam is 
formed with a flange or spline, disposed spi- 
irally on the curved face of the wheel. The 
spline engages a notch in a rod and gives the 
latter a reciprocating movement when the 
cam is rotated. / 

163. Elliptical Crank. — Two cranks are 
connected with a single pitman, the outer one, 
through a connecting link. The circular 
movement of the inner crank causes the outer 
end of the pitman to move in an elliptical 
orbit, thereby increasing its leverage at cer- 
tain. points. 

164. A device for gripping a bar or cable. 
The bar travels between a fixed guide and the 
cam-shaped head of a lever. When the lever 
is thrown up, friction of the bar on the cam 
tends to rotate the latter until it becomes 
wedged between the cam and the fixed guide. 

165. Lever Toggle-joint. — A device com- 
monly used on letter-presses. One of the two 
connected arms is pivoted to the platen of 
the press and the other is hinged to a fixed 
standard. By lifting the lever on one of the 
toggle arms the arms will be brought into ver- 
tical alignment with each other, producing a 
powerful pressure on the platen. 

166. Screw Toggle Press. — Two toggle arms 
are hinged to the letter-press and at their 

'outer ends are hinged to nuts on the feed 
screw. The screw is cut with right- and left- 
hand threads, so that when turned in opera- 
tive direction it will draw the arms toward 
each other and press the platen downward. 

167 Bell Crank Toe Levers.— Two bell 
crank levers are provided with projecting toes 
which bear against each other When one of 
these levers is swung on a center it causes the 
other to swing also, but at a variable speed, 
due to the varying leverage. This mecha- 
nism is used for a type of valve gear. 

168. Wiper Cam. — A type of cam used on 
certain stamp mills to lift the hammer. The 
cam bears against a flanged collar on the ham- 
mer spindle, wliich permits the latter to rotate, 

MISCELLANEOUS MOVEMENTS. 

169. Device for transmitting reciprocating 
motion from one pair of rods to another pair 
lying at right angles thereto. The rods are 
all connected by links so that when two op- 
posed rods are moved inward or toward eacbj 



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other, the other two rods will be moved out- 
ward, and vice versa. Also if two adjacent 
rods be moved the one outward, and the 
other inward, the opposite rods will be moved 
one outward and the other inward respec- 
tively. 

170. Means for converting rotary into recip- 
rocating motion. A bent shaft carries at its 
outer end an arm- which is loosely mounted 
thereon. • The lower -end of this arm engages 
a slot in a bar which is mounted to slide in 
euitable guides. As the bent shaft rotates, 
the arm which is prevented from rotating 
with the shaft is given a rocking movement 
in the direction of its axis, and thus imparts 
a reciprocating movement to the bar. 

171. Movement used on hand stamps. The 
plate which carries the type normally lies face 
upward against an ink pad, and is formed with 
a flange at each end in which cam slots are 
cut. The type plate is pivoted in a yoke 
piece to which the handle is secured, the 
pivot pins passing through slots in the up- 
rights of the frame. When the handle is 
depressed, the type plate is carried down-- 
ward and at the same time rotated by engage- 
ment with two jjins which operate in the cam 
slots so that the type will face downward 
when brought into contact with the paper. 
The parts are returned to normal position by 
a spring on release of the handle. 

172. A peculiar device for alternately rock- 
ing a pair of levers by means of a reciprocating 
rod. The rod carries a bell crank lever, A. 
This lever is normally held in the position 
illustrated by two pins against which it is 
pressed by the spring-pressed rod. Two bell 
crank levers, B and C, connected by a bar, 
are hinged adjacent to the rod. With the 
parts in the position illustrated, when the 
rod is drawn forward, one arm of the bell 
crank, A, will engage a pin at the end of 
lever, B, and will be thereby turned until it 
engages a stop piece, D, on the rod, after 
which it will operate to swing bell crank, B, 
on its axis. Owing to the connection be- 
tween the levers B and C, the latter will also 
be swung but in the opposite direction. On 
return of the rod the bell crank lever. A, is 
brought to normal position by the two posi- 
tion pins, and when next the rod is drawn 
foTwasd, the other arm of lever A will engage 
a pin on lever C,. returning both levers B and 
C to their original positions. 

173. Mechanism for transmitting rotary 
motion at increased speed from one shaft to 
another in alignment therewith. The lower 
or driving shaft carries a crown wheel at it3 
upper end which is engaged by a second crown 
wheel having universal joint connection with 
a stationary central post. The latter is sup- 
ported from the frame by cross arms, which 
are adapted to engage slots cut in the second 
crown wheel, and thus prevent the wheel 
from rotating. The upwardly projecting frame 
of the second crown wheel is connected to a 
wheel on the upper shaft, but eccentric there- 
to, by means of a ball-and-socket joint. The 
driven crown wheel is thus tilted so as to 
engage the teeth of the driving wheel. As 
the, latter rotates the driven wheel is given a 
rocking or wobbling movement, which rotates 
the upper shaft. . A slight movement of the 
lower shaft thus produces a complete rota- 
tion of the upper shaft. 

174. A device for converting reciprocating 
into rotary motion and vice versa. Two inter- 



meshing gear wheels are provided with spring 
pawls oppositely disposed on the gears, and 
adapted alternately to snap into engagement 
with a lug on a reciprocating rod and thereby 
impart rotary motion to the gears. 

175. A device for spacing apart a number 
of bars. The bars are arranged to slide with 
a certain amount of friction between guide 
pieces. Normally they are crowded together 
in a group by a pair of coil springs. A pair 
of rotating spur wheels whose teeth engage 
the pointed ends of the bars are mounted on 
either side to slide vertically in suitable guide- 
ways. The vertical movement of the gears 
carries the bars downward against the springs 
and the slow rotary movement of the gear?, 
successively releases the bars at regular inter- 
vals. The bars remain where released, being 
held by frictional engagement with the guide 
pieces. 

176. An early form of flexible shaft coup- 
ling. One of the shafts is pointed and fits 
into a socket in the other shaft. Each shaft 
carries a collar and these are connected by a 
flat spiral spring. 

177. Centrifugal hammer. Two ham- 
mers are hinged on a rapidly revolving disk. 
As the disK revolves, these hammers are al- 
ternately swung by the added force of gravity 
and of centrifugal acition, on to the anvil, A 
very powerful stroke is thus given. 

178. A device, for communicating recipro- 
cating motion of an engine to a rotating crank 
in such manner that the crank will have a 
greater throw than the stroke of the engine 
crosshead. The connecting rod acts on the 
crank shaft through a "lazy tongs" which 
multiplies the stroke and affords a better 
leverage uoon the same. 

179. A device for producing two rotations 
of the crank shaft oi an engine at each com- 
plete (forward and return) stroke of the cross- 
head. The crosshead of the engine is con- 
nected by a rod to a pair of connected levers, 
one of which is pivoted on a fixed pin and the 
other to the working beam. Owing to the 
toggle action of the levers the working beam 
will rise and fall twice while the fcrosshead 
moves to its outer position and returns. 

180. A device for converting rocking move- 
ment into rectilinear reciprocating movement, 
usually called ' ' parallel ' ' motion. Two links 
pivoted on the fixed pin A connect at their 
outer ends with two links pivoted on a rod at D. 
The latter links are also connected to a pair of 
links pivoted to a rock arm C. The dis- 
tance between A and B, the fixed pivot of 
the rock arm^ is equal to the distance be- 
tween B and C. Owing to the fact that the 
double link-quadrangle swings on two pivots, 
it will be lengthened when swung out of the 
vertical position, thus giving a rectilinear 
motion to the rod D. This movement is 
called "Peaucellier's" parallel motion. It is 
used to give rectilinear movement to a pump 
rod or to the piston rod of an engine. 

181. Another device for producing recti^ 
linear movement of a pump rod. The rod, 
instead of being directly connected to the 
working beam of an engine, is connected . 
thereto by cross links. This motion, how- | 
ever, is not a true "parallel motion," but 
the rod is strained by cross connection. 

182 to 184. Devices for overcorning "dead" 
centers of cranks. In Figure 182 the pitman 
is connected to one end of a leaf spring, whose 
other end is connected to the crank disk. The 



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( Miscellaneous Movements ) 



pitman is thus permitted to play between two 
socket lugs projecting from the face of the 
disk. Just before the back center is reached, 
the pitman slips out of engagement with 
the lower socket, by reason of the tensile 
strain on the spring, then on the return stroke, 
the connection of the spring being above the 
line of centers, the spring yields and throws 
the pitman back into the lower socket, and 
acts upon it to rotate the disk, until the 
forward center is reached, when the action 
will be the reverse of that just described. In 
183 the pitman is attached to a plate secured 
to the flywheel at two points by screws pass- 
ing through slots cut diagonally in the plate. 
In starting the. wheel from either of its dead 
centers, the pitman will cause the plate to 
slide on its diagonal slots and the pitman will 
thus carry itself out of the dead center. The 
plate will then be returned to normal position 
by a spring. The device shown in 184 is 
specially applicable to machines operated by 
treadles. Attached to the pitman is a piston 
acting in a cylinder pivoted to the rod on 
which the treadle is hinged. Within the 
cylinder are two coil springs which alter- 
nately act on the piston to carry the crank 
over the two dead centers. 

185. A device for transmitting motion from 
one shaft to another lying at right angles 
thereto. The driving shaft is formed with a 
spiral ribbon which acts between rollers ra- 
dially mounted on a wheel, carried by the 
driven shaft. The wheel is formed with a 
"double series of rollers, one on each side of 
the spiral shaft, but the forward series has 
been cut away in the illustration to show 
detail. The action is similar to that of a 
worm and worm wheel, but friction is reduced 
by the use of the rollers. 

186. An internal worm gear is here shown 
which offers the same advantages as the inter- 
nal spur gear, namely,>that of greater strength 
due to the fact that the area of contact be- 
tween the worm and the worm wheel is in- 
creased. The worm wheel is made up of two 
hollow sections, clamped together, but so 
spaced as to form a slot in the rim through 
which the worm shaft passes. 

187. Means for converting rotary motion 
into rocking motion. The power shaft car- 
ries two cams formed with corrugated peri- 
pheries. On opposite sides of the rock shaft 
are two rollers, one for each cam. The cams 
are so spaced that when one roller is being 
lifted, the other will fall. Thus, a rocking 
motion is imparted to the rock shaft. The 
same effect may be produced by using a sin- 
gle broad cam for the two rollers, but spacing 
one roller a little in advance of the other on 
the rock shaft. 

188. Another form of internal worm gear. 
A worm wheel is mounted on a stationary 
bracket and engages the spiral thread formed 
in a ring. As the ring revolves about the 
gear, the latter is caused to slowly rotate. As 
in Figure 186, a very strong construction and 
powerful transmission is affor'ded by this 
arrangement 

189. A sliding toggle movement is here 
shown for producing great pressure in a direc- 
tion at right angles to that of the impelling 
force. The toggle members are so mounted 
and are of such shape that they combine the 
action of the inclined plane with the ordinary 
toggle action. 



190. Means for giving parallel movement to 
the paddles of steamboats, etc. The power 
shaft carries a disk which is connected by a 
series of hinged links with a ring held eccen- 
trically to the shaft, between pairs of rollers. 
The paddles are attached to the links and are 
thereby kept parallel, while the disk and ring 
rotate. This same arrangement can be used 
to commimicate motion to shafts lying out of 
alignment with each other, one of the shafts 
being attached to the ring. 

191. Device for transmitting motion from 
one shaft to another at decreased velocity. 
The device is here shown diagrammatically. 
The driving shaft carries an eccentric A, upon 
which spur gears B and C are fitted to turn 
freely. The latter are permanently secured 
together. Wheel B meshes with internal gear 

D, on the driven shaft, and wheel C meshes 
with the stationary internal gear E. In oper- 
ation the eccentric carries gear C about gear 

E, thereby causing it to rotate on its own 
center. The gear B will be revolved by 
the eccentric in one direction and be rotated 
in the opposite direction by the gear C to 
which it is attached, thus causing the gear D 
to move at a reduced speed, 

192 to 196. ' ;cBall-bearing Devices. — In 
192 is shown a ball-bearing knuckle joint con- 
sisting of a flanged socket member having 
sockets for the reception of steel friction balls, 
and a second member formed with flanges 
which bear against the friction balls. When 
the device is in operation, the balls will roll 
back and forth in their sockets at each rota- 
tion of the knuckle joint. In 193 a common 
form of ball-bearing is shown. The balls are 
held in stationary cups and bear against cones 
on .the rotating shaft. 194 shows an end- 
thrust ball bearing of common form. 195 
shows a ball-bearing v/heel or caster. The 
balls are arranged to travel over an endless 
path, being guided from the forward end of 
the wheel bearing, through a passageway in 
the body of the caster, to the rear of the 
wheel bearing surface. 196 shows the same 
principle applied to a worm and worm wheel. 
The thread of th° -"'orm does not engage the 
teeth of the worm wheel, but communicates 
motion thereto through a series of balls. The 
latter, when they reach the end of the worm 
thread, are guided back through a passage- 
way in the worm body to the beginning of the 
thread. 

197. Means for converting reciprocating 
rectilinear • movement into reciprocating 
rotary movement. A primitive form of turn- 
ing lathe. The wooden shaft or other object 
to be turned, is mounted to rotate freely be- 
tween pivot pins. A rope coiled about the 
shaft has its free ends secured to a spring 
bow. In operation, the handle of the bow 
is seized in one hand, and the other hand 
holds the tool against the work, which is 
rotated first in one direction, and then in the 
other, by moving the bow back and forth. 

198. This is another form of primitive lathe 
which, however, is adapted to be driven by 
foot power. The rope, which is wound 
around the shaft is secured, at its upper end 
to a spring, usually the end of a thin board 
and at its lower end to a pedal. When the 

latter is depressed, the shaft will rotate toward 
the cutting tool and on its release the spring 
will cause it to rotate back, ready for the next 
downward stroke of the pedal. This type of 

[201 



(Miscellaneous Movements) 



lathe is still commonly used, in some Eastern 
countries. 

199. An ancient form of drill, but one which 
is still used by jewelers. Coiled about the 
spindle of the drill are two cords whose lower 
ends are secured to a cross piece mounted to 
slide up and down on the spindle. When the 
cross piece is pressed downward, it causes the 
cords to uncoil, rotating the spindle. When 
the cross piece reaches the bottona of its stroke 
the pressure on it is relieved, and due to the 
momentum of a heavy flywheel on the spin- 
dle, the latter continues to rotate, recoiling the 
cords and lifting up the cross piece. On the 
next downward stroke of the cross piece, the 
spindle will rotate in the opposite direction. 

200. Trip hammer. A rotating disk is 
formed with a series of pins adapted con- 
secutively to depress one arm of a bell crank 
to the opposite arm of which a hammer weight 
is connected by a cord. When the bell crank 
clears a pin on the disk, the weight drops, de- 
livering the blow, and is then lifted again by 
the next pin acting on the bell crank. 

201. Means for converting reciprocating 
motion into rotary motion. A rope attached 
at one end to a foot pedal passes over an inter- 
mediate pulley, and is attached at the other 
end to the weighted crank arm of a shaft. 
The arrangement is such that on the down- 
ward or power stroke of the pedal, the weighted 
arm will be lifted to the vertical position, 
when it will be assisted by gravity and its own 
momentum to continue its rotation and lift 
the pedal for the next downward stroke. 

202 to 205. Means for converting rotary 
motion into rectilinear motion. In 202, se- 
cured to a rotating shaft is a cam formed with 
projecting horns, which are adapted to suc- 
cessively engage a lug on a sliding rod. The 
rod is thereby given a trin-hammer move- 
ment, dropping by giavity af the lug clears 
the horns. In 203, a disk r.iounted eccen- 
trically on a rotating shaft is engaged on 
opposite sides by a pair of rollers, pivoted to 
a rod. As the shaft rotates, the rod will be 
moved up and down, following the eccentric 
movement of the disk. This movement is 
used on windmills to transmit motion from the 
rotating windmill shaft to the pump rod. In 
204 a shaft is provided with radial arms bearing 
rollers at their outer ends; These areadaptfed 
to operate within a frame mounted to slide, 
and formed with two lugs diagonally disposed 
on opposite sides of the frame. When the 
shaft is rotated, by means of the crank arm 
shown, the frame will be moved first to one 
side by one of the rollers engaging one of the 
lugs, and then in the opposite direction by 
another of the rollers moving into engage- 
ment with the other lug. In 205, a sliding 
carriage is formed with a lug adapted to be 
engaged successively by a series of pins on a 
revolving disk. The carriage will be moved 
forward by one of the pins until the latter 
clears the lug, when the carriage will be 
moved back again by another pin engaging 
an arm of a bell crank whose other arm en- 
gages the carriage. 

206. Automatic release for a winding drum. 
A winding drum is mounted to turn freely on 
a shaft. A hook is pivoted on the face of the 
drum, and when it is desired to rotate the 
drum the hook is brought into engagement 
with' a tappet on the shaft. When, however, 
the weight has been raised to a predetermined 
position by the winding drum, a pin strikes the 



hook, releasing it from engagement with the 
tappet and permitting the weight to drop. 

207. An amusement device called the "fly- 
ing Horse" used in parks and fairs. A frame 
mounted to rotate on a vertical spindle, is 
provided with a simple gear wheel, which 
meshes with a driving pinion. By alter- 
nately pulling the cords, radiating fi om a 
crank on the shaft which carries the i inion, 
the persons occupying the seats or horses at 
the comers of the frame, are enabled to keep 
the apparatus in motion. 

208. This figure shows a single pulley driv- 
ing four other pulleys by means of a cross- 
shaped connecting rod. This form of drive 
is occasionally used for rotating wheels or 
cylinders which lie so close to each other that 
no gearing or other mechanism for transmit- 
ting motion can be used. 

209. This figure illustrates the rather cu- 
rious fact that if two wheels are coupled to- 
gether by a connecting rod, whose crank pins 
are respectively equally distant from the 
centers of the wheels, then while one wheel 
is constantly rotated in one direction the 
other may be rotated in the same direction, 
or. in the opposite direction, as desired. 

210. A stop motion used in brick machines 
for drawing the mold back and forth, and 
bringing it to rest at each stroke to permit 
of depositing the clay and removing the brick. 
A rotating wheel carries a crank pin which 
engages a slot in a connecting rod. At the 
end of its forward stroke, and at the end of 
its return stroke the connecting rod will re- 
main stationary, while the crank pin moves 
from one end of the slot to the other. 

211. A device used in sewing machines for 
feeding the goods under the needle. The 
feed bar is formed with teeth at one end and 
the opposite end is pivoted between the arms 
of a forked lever. The feed bar is lifted by 
a peripheral projection on a cam, and at the 
same time the forked lever is moved forward 
by a projection on the side face of the cam, 
which bears against a lug carried on the lever. 
A spring at the opposite end of the lever nor- 
mally holds the lug in contact with the face 
of the cam. 

212. Elevator safety device. Secured to 
the side of the elevator shaft is a plate 
formed with one or more studs. To the wind- 
ing drum of the elevator a number of hooks 
are pivoted. When the drum rotates the 
hooks are thrown out by centrifugal action, 
and if dangerous speed is acquired, they swing 
out far enough to catch hold of one or more 
of the studs, bringing the drum to a stop. 
The shock of the sudden stoppage is Usually 
taken up by a coil spring on the drum. 

213. A device for converting oscillating 
motion of a lever into intermittent rotary 
motion. A crank arm which is provided with 
two pawls hinged to its upper end, is oscil- 
lated within the rim of a wheel. The pawls 
are connected by a cord to a small crank, 
which may be turned so as to bring one pawl 
into frictional engagement with the rim of 
the wheel, and thereby cause the wheel to 
rotate intermittently. W^hen it is desired to 
reverse the direction of rotation, the crank 
is turned, raising the first pawl and bringing 
the other one into engagement with the Wheel. 

214. Means for converting rectilinear mo- 
tion into rotary motion. This is used on 
certain forms- of drill stocks. ' The drill stock 
is cut i»ith two spiral grooves, one of which 



I 21 J 



(Drafting Devices) 



( Governors ) 



18 left-handed and the other right-handed. A 
ring on the drill stock is provided with a fol- 
lower which follows one of the grooves on the 
, forward stroke, and the other groove on the 
I return stroke, thus causing the drill to turn 
always in the same direction. 

215. An automatic bench clamp, used by 
carpenters for holding the work while planing, 
etc. Pivoted to the work bench are two cam 
levers, formed with curved ends, which are 
moved apart by the work as it is pressed in 
between them, thus causing the clamping 
ends of the levers to tightly grip the work. 

216. Gripping tongs for lifting stones and 
the like. The upper arms are connected to 
a shackle by a pair of links so that when a 
pull is exerted on the shackle, the arms are 
drawn together, pressing the points into the 
stone; the heavier the stone lifted the more 
tightly will the arms be drawn together, thus 
increasing the grip on the stone. 

217. A series of cross connected levers used 
for multiplying or reducing motion. In the 
illustration, the lowest pair of levers is pivoted 
to a fixed pin A, and the arrangement is such 
that if one pair of the crossed levers be folded 
together, the entire series will fold, giving the 
rod attached to the upper pair of levers a 
greatly multiplied longitudinal movement, and 
conversely if the rod be moved, a greatly 
reduced motion will be given to the lower 
pair of links. The extent to which the mo- 
tion is multiplied or reduced is directly pro- 
portional to the number of pairs of levers in 
the series. This de\ice is called a "lazy 
tongs. ' ' The figure also shows a means for 
multiplying motion imparted from one recti- 
linear reciprocating rod to another. If the 
fixed pivot of the lazy tongs be at B, on giving 
reciprocating motion to the lower rod, the 
reciprocating motion will be imparted to the 
upper rod, but the travel of the upper re ,' will 
be twice that of the lower rod. 

DRAFTING DEVICES. 

218. A pantograph, or an instrument for 
reproducing a drawng on a larger or smaller 
scale. It comprises two levers hinged to- 
gether and connected by a pair of hinged 
links. One of the levers carries a slide. A, 
in which a pencil is secured. The other lever 
carries a pivot pin, and the tracing point is 
located at C. In use the device is made to 
turn on the fixed point at B, then on moving 
the tracing point C over a drawing, the same 
will be reproduced by the pencil at A. By 
varying the positions of the pencil and the 
pivot pin on their respective levers, the re- 
production may be made larger or smaller 
than the original as desired. 

219. This figure shows the "parallel ruler," 
a device used for drawing parallel lines. Two 
parallel rulers are connected by a pair of par- 
allel links of equal leneth. The rulers will then 
always lie parallel to each other, whether 
swung apart or moved together. 

220. A device for drawing a conchoid curve. 
A conchoid curve may be described as a curve 
of such form that when measured along lines 
drawn from a fixed point called the pole, it 
will, at all points, be equidistant from a 
straight line, called the asymptote. The de- 
vice shown comprises a T-square with grooved 
head-piece adapted to receive a slide pivoted 

, to a bar. A slot in the lower end of this bar 
engages a pin on the blade of the T-square 
ftnd the opposite end of the bar carries the 



scribing pencil. The pin represents the polo 
and the grooved head of the T-square repre- 
sents the asymptote. The curve traced by 
the pencil when measured along the bar lies 
everywhere equidistant from the asymptote. 

221. An ellipsograph or a device for draw- 
ing ellipses. This is similar to the panto- 
graph shown in Figure 218. The fixed pivot, 
however, is at B, the tracing point at A, and 
the pencil at C. When A is moved in a 
straight line toward or away from B, the 
pencil C will trace an elliptical curve. 

222. A device for drawing a helical curve. 
A rod provided with a pivot point is threaded 
to receive a nut with a milled flange. As the 
rod is moved about ts center, the nut is ro- 
tated by a frictional contact of the flange 
with the drawing paper, and is thus slowly 
fed toward or away from the center. A pen- 
cil carried by a sleeve on this nut will then 
trace a helical curve. 

223. A device for describing parabolas. A 
pin is placed at the focus of th^ desired parab- 
ola and a straight-edge is placed on the line 
of the directrix. A slack cord is secured at 
one end to the pin, and at the other to the 
blade of a square whose stock bears against 
the straight edge. The slack of the cord is 
taken up by the pencil, which bears against 
the blade of the square. SuflScient slack is 
provided to make the distance of the pencil 
from the focus equal to its distance from the 
straight-edge or directrix. The curve then 
described by the pencil while keeping the cord 
taut against the square, as the square is moved 
along the straight-edge, will be a parabola. 

224. A device for describing hyperbolas. 
The two pins shown represent the foci of two 
opposite hyperbolas. A ruler turns on one of 
these pins as a center, and its opposite end is 
connected with the other pin by a slack cord. 
The slr.ck of the cord is taken up by the 
pencil which bears against the ruler. The 
curve described will then fulfil the conditions 
of a hyperbolic curve, which requires that the 
distance from any point in the curve to its 
focus, minus the distance from that point to 
any other fixed point or focus, shoula always 
be a constant quantity. 

GOVERNORS. 

A governor of a steam engine is "a device 
for automatically operating the throttle, or 
for shortening the stroke of the slide valve 
when the engine attains a dangerous speed. 

225. Watt's Governor. — When a danger- 
ous speed is acquired, the centrifugal force 
acting uDon a pair of balls tends to lift a 
sleeve which, through a bell crank, operates 
the throttle. 

226. Porter's Governor. — The operation 
is very similar to that of Watt, but the balls' 
are required to lift a weight which may be 
adjusted as desired. 

227. Kley's Cross Arm Governor.^ — The 
degree of sensitiveness is governed by the- 
length of the cross arms, and also by an ad- 
justable weight, which is lifted by the balls. 

228. Buss' Governor. — Two pairs erf balls 
are used, one pair acting to counterbalance 
the other. 

229. Tangte's Governoti. — The balls 
when thrown out by centrifugal action de- 
press a rod in the hollow central shaft and 
this rod acts directly on the block in the link 
thus shortening the stroke of the slide valve. 



r22] 



(Governors) 



(Springs) 



230 and 231. Proell's Governor. — In 230 
the balls, aside from lifting a weight, act to 
compress a spiral spring. In 231 the outward 
movement oi the balls is controlled by an air 
dashpot. 

232. Cosine Governor. — A cross arm gov- 
ernor which acts to raise a weight. 

233. Parabolic Governor. — The balls 
move on parabolic guide arms, which modify 
the effect of the centrifugal force, and produce 
equal valve movement, which is exactly pro- 
portionai to the speed of the engine. 

234. Oscillating Lfver Governor. — 
The balls are secured to the ends of a lever, 
which assumes a more horizontal position as 
the speed of the engine increases. A spring 
normally holds the arm in me tilted position 
illustrated. 

235. Sweet 's Fly wheei/ Governor. — The 
centrifugal action of the ball moves the eccen- 
tric toward the center, thus reducing the 
stroke of the slide valve. A leaf spring re- 
sists the centrifugal action of the ball. 

236. Hartnell 's Expansion Governor. — 
The balls are thrown out by centrifugal force 
against the action of a spring raising tne block 
in the link and thus varying the stroke of the 
valve. 

237. Hartnell 's Crank Shaft Governor. 
— The weights operate against the spring to 
move a toothed sector, which moves the eccen- 
tric toward the center of the crank shaft, thus 
varying the stroke of the slide valve. 

238. Turner's Crank Shaft Governor. — 
The weights have bearings in the side plates 
of the governor. They also carry pins by 
which they are connected to the eccentric. 
"When the weights are thrown out by cen- 
trifugal action, they move the eccentric 
toward the center of the crank shaft. 

239 and 240. Vane Governors.— The shaft 
is prevented from rotating too rapidly by the 
atmospheric resistance acting on a pair of 
vanes. This resistance may be varied by ad- 
justing the vanes to different angles. In 
some types of vane governors the inclined 
vanes serve to lift a sleeve, cutting off the 
supply of power. 



SPRINGS. 
241 and 242. Laminated or Carriaob 
Springs, used on carriages t6 take up the 
jolts of the wheels in passing over uneven 
roads. 241 shows the elliptical form, and 
242 the semi-elliptical form. They are built 
up of flat spring metal strips. 

243. Watch or Clock Spring, used to 
drive a watch or clock train. The spnng :3 
formed of a flat spring metal strip, wound 
into a flat coil. 

244. Ribbon Spring. — A strip of flat spring 
metal mounted to exert a torsional pressure. 

245. Spiral Spring. — A length of round 
spring wire wound into spiral form. This 
spring could be used either as a tension or as a 
compression spring, though usually it has the 
form shown in Figure 247 when u.<;ed as a 
tension spring. A spiral spring should never 
be extended or compressed more than one- 
third of its length. 

246. Sear Spring. — This spring gets its 
name from its use in gun locks for causing the 
sear to catch in the notch of the tumbler. 
However, the spring is here shown as holding 
apart the arms of a compass. 

247. Tension Spiral Spring. — A spiral 
spring which tapers toward the ends so that 
the pull will come centrally on the spring, 
thus giving an even tension and avoiding side 
strains. 

248. Flat or Leaf Spring. — A strip of flat 
spring metal used chiefly as a compression 
spring. A spring of this type is apt to lose its 
resiliency after continued use. 

249. DiOK Spring. — A compression spring 
made up of a series of dished disks or plates. 

250. HELIC.4.L Spring. — This spring differs 
from the soiral spring. Figure 245, in that it 
is formed by being wrapped around a cone, 
w^i..Y-eas a spiral spring is formed by being 
wrapped around a cylinder. The helical 
spring may safely be compressed until it lies 
flat like a clock spring. 

251. Volute Spring.— A compression spring 
formed by coiling a flat spring ribbon into a 
helix. 

252. Furniture Spring. — A compression 
spring comprising a double helical spring used 
in furniture to support the cushioned oacks 
or seats of chairs. This spring is also used in 
bedi springs. 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY BELTING. 



The Tenacity of Good New Belt Leath- 
er varies from 3,000 lb. to 5,000 lb. per square 
inch of sectional area. 

The Coefficient of Friction between 
ordinary belting and cast-iron pulleys is about 
.423. 

The Thickness of Belts varies from 
three-sixteenths to five-sixteenths of an inch, 
or an average of one-fourth of an inch. 

Tenacity op Riveting and Lacing. — The 
ultimate tenacity of good single leather belt- 
ing may be taken at about 1,000 lb. per inch 
in width; the corresponding strength of a 
riveted joint being about 400 lb., a butt laced 
joint about 250 lb., and an ordinary oyerlap 
laced joint 470 lb. It is not customary, how- 
ever, to allow an effective strain of more than 
one-fourth these amounts. 

Working Stress of Belts. — The follow- 
ing are the effective working stresses allowed 



for the different kinds and thicknesses of 
belts referred to in the table of powers. 
Ordinary single belts, 50 lb. 
Light double belts. 70 lb. 
Heavy double belts, 90 lb. 
Link belts, i in. thick, 42 lb. 
" ^in. " 48 1b. 
" fin. " 57 lb. 
" fill. " 66 lb. 
" l-m. " 78 1b. 
" 1 in. "90 1b. 
Speed of Belting. — On ordinary shop line 
shafts the velocity of the belts varies from 
1,000 ft. to 1,500 ft. per minute. Lathe belts 
vary from 1,500 ft. to 3,000 ft. per minute. 

Stress on Shafting. — The cross stress on 
shafting arising from the sum of the tension 
on the two sides of the belt may be taken at 
90 lb. per inch in width. — Practical Electrical , 
Engineers' Pocket Book and Diary. 



[23] 



(Types of Engines) 




1 


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-From Haeder & Fowles' Handbook on the Steam Engine. 
[24] 



(Types of Engines) 



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ts. 



16. 



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TYPES OF ENGINES. 



1. Trunk Engine. 

2 and 3, Vertical Engines. 

4. Steeple Engine. 

8. Inclined Frame Engine. 

6. Oscillating Engines. 

7. Corliss Frame or Girder Engine. 

8. Horizontal Engine. 

9. Radial Engine. 

10. Beam Engine. 

11. Beam Engine 

12. Self Contained Horizontal Engine. 
33. Inclined Cylinder Engine. 

14 Double Cj'linder with Cranks opposite or 
at 180^ 



15. Three Cylinder Engine with Cranks at 

120°. 

16. Compound Woolf Engine with Cranks 

together. 

17. Compound "Woolf Engine with Cranks 

opposite or at 180°. 

18. Compound Tandem Engine with Re- 

ceiver. 

19. Compound Engine with Cylinders side 

by side and Cranks at 90°. 

20. Triple Expansion Engine, Cylinders side 

by side and Cranks at 120°. 

21. Triple Expansion Engine, setai-tandem : 

Two Cranks at 90°. 



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CHAPTER II. 



MACHINE ELEMENTS 



The Machine Elements or Powers are the 
Lever and the Inclined Plane. Every ma- 
chine when analyzed is found to be made up 
of these elements, either singly or in com- 
bination; for example, pulleys, gear wheels, 
etc., are forms of levers, while screws, cams, 
etc., are forms of inclined planes. 

There are four distinct types of levers, as 
shown in our illustration. 

Ist. The Common Lever, consisting of a 
straight inflexible bar movable on a fulcrum. 
The section of the bar extending from the 
fulcrum to the point where the power is ap- 
plied is called the Power Arm, and the section 
extending from the fulcrum to the point 
where the weight is appUed is called the 
Weight Arm. 

2d. The Angular or Bell Crank Lever. This 
is distinguished from the Common Lever in 
having its power arms disposed at' an angle 
to the weight arms. 

3d. The Wheel and Axle, or Revolving 
Lever. A wheel and axle or two concentric 
wheels take the place of the power and weight 
arms. The weight is attached to a rope coiled 
on one of the wheels, and the power is at- 
tached to a rope coiled on tbe other wheel. 
The relation of this lever to the common lever 
is indicated by the dotted lines, and it will be 
evident that this relation remains constant 
even when the wheels are revolving. 

4th. The Pulley, Another type of revolv- 
ing lever, but differing from the wheel and 
axle type in that a single wheel is used and 
the fulcrum is not necessarily always at the 
center of the wheel. 

Each of these types of the simple lever is 
capable of three different arrangements usu- 
ally termed "Orders." In the First Order 
the fulcrum lies between the weight and the 
power. In the Second Order the weight lies 
between the fulcrum and the power. In the 
Third Order the power lies between the ful- 
crum and the weightr' The second order gives 
the longest power arm relative to the weight 
arm, and consequently is the most powerful 
lever of the three. The formulae for deter- 
mining the amount of power required to bal- 
ance a given weight, are given at the bottom 
of the illustration. In measuring the arms 
of the angular levers the measurements 
should not be taken along the length of the 
arms, but in the horizontal plane as shown, 
because this measurement represents the true 
theoretical length of the lever arm. As the 
lever is moved about the fulcrum, the ratio 
of the power arm to the weight arm changes 
as indicated by dotted lines in the first order 
of angular levers, because the arm that is ap- 
proaching the horizontal plane is increasing 
in length, while the other which is moving 
toward the vertical plane is decreasing in 



length. The same is true m a modified form 
of the second and third orders of angular 
levers. 

In the case of the pulleys the power and 
weight arms bear a definite relation to each 
other. No matter what their size may be, 
the power arm will always be of the same length 
as the weight arm in pulleys of the first order, 
consequently the power must be equal to the 
weight in order to keep the lever in- equilib- 
rium. In pulleys of the second order the 
power arm will be twice the length of the 
weight arm. consequently the power must be 
equal to half of the weight in order to keep 
the lever in equilibrium; and in pulleys of 
the third order the power arm will be half the 
.length of the weight arm, consequently the 
power must equal twice the. weight in order 
to maintain, the equilibrium of the lever. " 

The compound levers consist of two or more 
simple levers of the same or different orders 
coupled together, either for the purposes of j 
convenience or to increase the power. 

Of the two compound common levers illus- 
trated. Figure I shows two common levers 
of the first order coupled together, and Fig- 
ure 2 represents a common lever of the first 
order coupled to a common lever of the sec- 
ond order. 

The compound revolving lever illustrated 
is a combination of a wheel and axle of the 
second order, operating a pulley of the second 
order. This compound lever is also called a 
"Chinese windlass," owing to its early use 
by the Chinese for lifting heavy weights, such 
as draw-bridges, etc. 

The compound pulleys or tackle shown are 
various combinations of pulleys of the same 
or different orders. As in the case of the sim- 
ple pulleys, the weight and power arms bear 
a constant relation to each other, and it is 
therefore possible to give the numerical value 
of the power in terms of the weight, or vice 
versa, afforded by the different types of tackle, 
regardless of the size of the individual pulleys 
they comprise. The following simple formula 
is applicable to all tackle in which a continu- 
ous length of rope is used, as in Figures 1, 2, 
and 3: Power equals weight divided by the 
number of rope parts supporting the weight. 
In Figure 3, for instance, there are five such 
parts, not counting of course the part on 
which the power is applied. Figures 4 to 9 
are all rather complex, owing to the fact that 
the power is transniitted to the weight through 
one or more movable pulley blocks connected 
by separate ropes. Figures 4 and 5 show 
tackle arrangements called Spanish burtons. 
A geheral formula, applicable to any number 

W 
of pulleys arranged as in Fig. 6, is P^-x: — i 

z° — I, 



[27 1 




[28] 



(Mechanical Powers) 



in which P represents the power, W the 
•weight, and n the number of ropes used. The 
general formula for the arrangement shown 

in Figure 7 is P=-^. The general formula 

for the arrangement shown in Figure 8 is 

W 
P = — . The general formula for the arrange- 

3" 

w 

ment shown in Figure 9 is P = -^ — ;• 

There are three general classes of inclined 
planes, the simple inclined plane, the wedge 
or movable inclined plane, and the screw or 
revolving inclined plane. There are three 
general types of simple inclined planes, as 
illustrated. 1st. That in which the power 
acts in a direction parallel with the inclined 
face of the inclined plane. 2d. That in 



which the power acts parallel with the base 
of the inclined plane. 3d. That in which the' 
power acts at an angle both to the face and to 
the base of the inclined plane. The formulae 
for determining the mechanical advantage 
secured by the different forms of inclined 
planes are given in the illustration. In the 
third type of inclined plane the relation of 
p>ower to weight changes as the weight is 
drawn up the plane, owing to the fact that 
the angle B becomes gradually larger. 

There are two types of wedges, the single 
wedge and the double wedge. The latter is 
the more common type. 

Under revolving inclined planes we have 
the screw together with the cam (not illus- 
trated here), which are more commonly used 
in machinery than any other type of inclined 
plane. 



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[30] 



CHAPTER III. 



GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 



GEOMETRICAL FIGURES 



1. ActJTE Angle, — An acute angle is less 
than a right angle, or less than 90 degrees. 

2. Alternate ANCLES.-r-The internal an- 
gles made bj^ two lines with a third, on oppo- 
site sides of it. If the two lines are parallel, 
the alternate angles are equal. If the par- 
allels AB, CD, be cut by the line EF, the 
angles AGH, GHD, as also the angles BGH 
and GHC, are called alternate angles, 

3. Arc, — Any part of the circumference of 
a circle or other curve; a segment of a circle. 

4. 5, 6, and 7. Conic Sections.— Formed by 
the intersections of cones and planes. The 
conic sections are the ellipse, parabola, and 
hyperbola. If the section be taken parallel to 
the base of the cone its outline will form a 
perfect circle. If the section be taken parallel 
to one side of the cone it will in outline have 
the form of a parabola (6). If the section be 
taken parallel to the axis of the cone its outline 
will have the form of a hyperbola (7), Any 
other section through the cone will in outline 
have the form of an ellipse (5), 

8. CnoRD. — A right line marking the ex- 
tremities of the arc of a circle, 

9. Circle, — 1. In geometry, a plane figure, 
comprehended by a single curve line, called its 
circumference, every part of which is equally 
distant from a point called the center. Of 
course all lines drawn from the center to the 
circumference, or periphery, are equal to each 
other. 2. In popular use, the line that com- 
prehends the figure, the plane or sxirface com- 
prehended, and the whole body or solid matter 
of a round substance, are denominated a cir- 
cle; a ring; an orb; the earth, 

10. Curve. — A curve line is one which may 
be cut by a right line in more points than one, 
A curve line is that which is neither a straight 
line nor composed of straight lines. 

11. Cube, — A regular, solid body with six 
equal square sides. 

12. Cylinder, — A solid body supposed to 
be generated by the rotation of a parallelo- 

fram round one of its sides ; or a long, circular 
ody, of uniform diameter, and its extremi- 
ties forming equal parallel circles. 

13. Diagonal. — The line extending from 
one angle to another of a quadrilateral or 
multilateral figure, and dividing it into two 
parts, 

14. Diagram,— A figure, draught, or 
scheme delineated for the purpose of demon- 
strating the properties of any figure, as a 
square, triangle, circle, etc, 

1 5. Diameter, — A right line passing through 
the center of a circle, or other curvilinear fig- 



ure, terminated by the curve, and dividing 
the figure symmetrically into two equal parts! 
16", Ellipse, — In conic sections, a figure 
formed by the intersection of a plane and cone 
when the plane passes obliquely through the 
opposite sides of the cone, 

17. Equilateral Triangle. — A triangle 
having all three sides equal. 

18. Hexagon. — A plane figure of six sides 
and six angles. If the sides and angles are 
equal, it is a regular hexagon. The cells of 
honey-comb are hexagons, and it is remark- 
able that bees instinctively form their cells of 
this figure, which fills any given space without 
any interstice or loss of room. 

19. Htpothenuse,— The subtense or longest 
side of a right-angled triangle, or the line that 
subtends the right angle, 

20. Rectangular Triangle, — If one of 
the angles of a triangle is a right angle, the 
triangle is rectangular. 

21. Right Angle, — A right angle is one 
formed by a right line falling on another per- 
pendicularly, or an angle of 90 degrees, mak- 
ing the quarter of a .circle, 

22. Isosceles TihANGLE, — If two of the 
sides only are equal in a triangle it is an isos- 
celes or equicrural triangle. 

23. Oblique Line. — An oblique line is one 
that, falling on another, makes oblique angles 
with it. 

24. Obtuse Angle, — An angle greater than 
a right angle, or containing more than 90 
degrees. 

25. Scalene Triangle, — One in which all 
the three sides are unequal. 

26. Secant, — The secant of a circle is a line 
drawn from the circumference on one side to a 
point without the circumference on the other, 

27. Oval, — A body or figure in the shape of 
an egg. or of an ellipse, 

^ 28, Parallelogram, — l. In geometry, a 
right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose oppo- 
site sides are parallel, and consequently equal. 
2, In common use, this word js applied to 
quadrilateral figures of more length than 
breadth. 

29. Sector. — A part of a circle compre- 
hended between two radii and the included 
arc ; or a mixed triangle, formed by two radii 
and the arc of a circle. 

30. Parallelopiped, — A regular solid com- 
prehended under six parallelograms, the op- 
posite ones of which are similar, parallel, and 
equal to each other; or it is a prism whose 
base is a parallelogram. It is always triple to 
a pyramid of the same base and height. Or a 



[31] 



i9 



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56 






[32] 



(Geometrical Figures) 



f>arallelopiped.is a solid figure bounded by six 
aces, parallel to ea,ch other, two and two. 

31. Parallel" Lines. — One line is parallel 
to another, when the lines are at an equal dis- 
tance apart throughout the whole length. 

32. Segment of a Cikcle. — That part of 
the circle contained between a chord and an 
arc of that circle, or so much of the circle as 
is cut off by the chord. The segment of a 
sphere is a part cut off by a plane. 

33. Pentagon. — A plane figure having five 
angles, and consequently five sides. 

34. Perpendicular. — In geometry, a line 
falling at right angles on another line, or mak- 
ing equal angles with it on each side. Thus 
if the straight line AD, falling on the straight 
line BC, make the angles BAD, DAC equal to 
one another, AD is called a perpendicular to 
BC. 

35. Quadrangle. — A plane figure having 
four angles, and consequently four sides. 

36. Rectangle. — A four-sided figure hav- 
ing only right angles. A right-angled paral- 
lelogram. 

37. Quadrant. — The quarter of a circle or 
of the circumference of a circle. 

38. Quadrilateral. — Having four sides, 
and consequently four angles. 

39. Tangent. — In the figure, let AH he a. 
straight line drawn touching the circle ADE 
at A, one extremity of the arc AB, and meet- 
ing the diameter IB produced, which passes 
through the other extremity B to the point H ; 
then AH \s the tangent of the arc AB, or of 
the angle ACB, of which AB is the measure. 

40. Radius. — A right line drawn or extend- 
ing from the center ofa circle to the periphery ; 
the semidiameter of the circle. In trigonom- 
etry, the radius is equal to the sine of 90 de- 



41. Trapezium. — A plane figure contained 
under four right lines, of which no two are 



42. Trapezoid.— A plane, four-sided figure, 
having two of the opposite sides parallel to 
each other. 

43. Reflection. — In the figure, let AB 
represent a smooth polished surface, or mirror, 
and suppose a ray of light proceeding in the 
direction LP to impinge on the surface at P, 
and to be reflected from it in the direction PR. 



From P draw PQ perpendicular to AB, then 
the angle LPQ is called the angle of incidence, 
and QPR the angle of reflection. 

44. Superficies. A superficies consists of 
length and breadth; as, the superficies of a 
plate or of a sphere. Superficies is recti- 
linear, curvilinear, plane, convex, or concave. 

45. Rhomboid. — A figure having some re- 
semblance to a rhomb; or a quadrilateral 
figure whose opposite sides and angles are 
equal, but which is neither equilateral nor 
eqmangular. 

•ifi. Semicircle. — The half of a circle, the 
part of a circle comprehended between its 
diameter and half of its circumference. 

47. Square. — A rectilinear figure having 
four equal sides and four right angles. 

48. Rectilinear Triangle. — One in which 
the three lines or sides are all right lines, as 
distinguished from curvilinear triangle. 

49. Rhomb, Rhombus. — An oblique-angled, 
equilateral parallelogram, or a quadrilateral 
figure whose sides are equal and the opposite 
sides parallel, but the angles unequal, two of 
the angles being obtuse and two acute. 

50. Sine.— In the circle ACH, let AOH be 
a diameter, and let CE be perpendicular there- 
to; then shall CE be the sine of the arc CH, 
or of the angle COH, and of its supplement 
CO A. The sine of a quadrant, or of a right 
angle, is equal to the radius. The sine of any 
arc is half the chord of twice that arc. 

51. Acute-angled Triangle. — One hav- 
i ng all three of its angles acute. 

52. An Equilateral Triangle. — One hav- 
ing aU the three sides equal. 

53. Polygon. — A plane figure of many an- 
gles, and consequently of many sides; par- 
ticularly, one whose perimeter consists of 
more than four sides. 

54. Obtusangular Triangle. — If one of 
the angles of a triangle is obtuse, the triangle 
is called obtusangular or amblygonous. 

55. Curvilinear and Spherical Trian- 
gles. — If the three sides of a triangle are all 
curves, the triangle, is said to be curvilinear. 
If the sides are all arcs of great circles of the 
sphere, the triangle is said to be spherical. 

56. Mixtilinear Triangle. — If some of 
the sides of a triangle are right and others 
curve, the triangle is said to be mixtilinear. 



GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.* 



1- . . . 

To divide a given line A B into two equal 
parts; and to erect a perpendicular through 
the middle. 

With the end A and B as centers, draw the 
dotted circle arcs with a radius greater than 
half the line. Through the crossings of the 
arcs draw the perpendicular C D, which divides 
the line into two equal parts. 

2_ 

From a given point C on the line A B, erect 
a perpendicular C D. 

With C as a center, draw the dotted circle 
arcs at A and B equal distances from C. With 
A and B as centers, draw the dotted circle arcs 
at D. From the crossing D draw the required 
perpendicular D C. 

* Copyright, 1895, by J. B. Lippincott Co. Published by special permission of, and arrange- 
ment with Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co. 



From a given point C at a distance from the 
line A B, draw a perpendicular to the line. 

With C as a center, draw the dotted circle arc 
so that it cuts the line at A and B. With A 
and B as centers, draw the dotted cross arcs at 
D with equal radii. Draw the required per- 
pendicular through C and crossing D. 

4. 

At the end of A to a given line A B, erect a 
perpendicular A C. 

With the point Z) as a center at a distance 
from the line, and with A, D as radius, draw 
the dotted circle arc so that it cuts the line at 
E through E and Z), draw the diameter E C; 
then join C and A, which will be the required 
perpendicular. 



[33] 



(Division of Lines and Angles) 



(Division of Circles) 



Through a given point C at a distance from 
the line A B, draw a line C D parallel to A B. 

With C as a center, draw the dotted arc E D, 
with ^ as a center, draw through C the dotted 
arc F. C. With the radius F C and E as a 
center, draw the cross arc at D. Join C with 
the cross at D, which will be the required 
parallel line. 



On a given line A B and at the point B, con- 
struct an angle equal to the angle C D E. 

With Z) as a center, draw the dotted arc C 
E; and with the»same radius ard B as a ce.. ter, 
draw the arc G F; then make G F equal to C 
E; then join B F, which will form the required 
&xig\e, F B G = C D E. 



Divide the angle AC B into two equal parts. 

With C as a center, draw the dotted arc D 
E; with D and E as centers, draw the cross 
arcs at F with equal radii. Join C F, which 
divides *he angle into the required parts. 

Angles AC F^F C B = k{AC B). 

8. 

Divide an angle into two equal parts, when 
the lines do not extend to a meeting point. 

Draw the lines C D and C E parallel, and at 
equal distances from the lines A B and F G. 
With C as a center, draw the dotted arc B G; 
and with B and G as centers, draw the cross 
arcs H. Join C H, which divides the angle 
into the required equal parts. 

9. 

To construct a parallelogram, with the 
given sides A and B and angle C. 

Draw the base line D E, and make the angle 
F D E = C; lines D E = B and D F = A; com- 
plete the parallelogram by cross arcs at G, and 
the problem is thus solved. 

10. 

To divide the line A Bm. the same propor- 
tion of parts as A C 

Join C and B, and through the given divi- 
sions 1, 2, and 3 draw lines parallel with C B, 
which solves the problem. 

11. 

To find the center of a circle which will pass 
through three given points A , B, and C. 

With £ as a center, draw the arc D E F G; 
and with the same radius and A as a center, 
draw the cross arcs D and F; also with C as a 
center, draw the cross arcs E and G. Join D 
and F, and also E and G, and the crossing o is 
the required center of the circle. 

12. 

To construct a square upon a given line 
A B. 

With ^ B as radius and A and B as centers, 
draw the circle arcsA E D and B E C. Divide 
the arc B ^ in two equal parts at F, and with 
E F a,3 radius, and E as center, draw the circle 
C F D. Join A and C B and D, C and D, 
which completes the required square. 

13. 

Through a given point A in a circumference, 
draw a tangeL.t to the circle. 



Through a> given point A and center C, 
draw the line B C. With A as a, center, draw 
the circle arcs B and C; with B and C as cen- 
ters, draw the cross arcs D and E; then join D 
and E, which is the required tangent. 

14. 

From a given point A outside of a circum- 
ference, draw a tangent to the circle. 

Join A and C, and upon A C as a. diameter 
draw the half circle ABC, which cuts the given 
circle at B. Join A and B, which is the re- 
quired tangent. 

15. 

To draw a circle with a given radius R, that 
will tangent the circle A B C at C. 

Through the given point C, draw the diam- 
eter A C extended beyond D; from C set off 
the given radius R to D; then D is the center of 
the required circle, which tangents the given 
circle at C. 

16. 

To draw a circle with a given radius R, that 
will tangent two given circles. 

Join the centers A and B of the given circles 
Add the given radius R to each of the radii of 
the given circle, and draw the cross arcs C, 
which is the center of the circle required to 
tangent the other two. 

17. 

To draw a tangent to two circles of different 
diameters. 

Join the centers C and c of the given circles, 
and extend the line to D; draw the radii A C 
and a c parallel with one another. Join A a, 
and extend the line to D. On C Z) as a diam- 
eter, draw the half circle C e Z>; on c D as a 
diameter, draw the half circle c f D; then the 
crossings e and / are the tangenting points of 
the circles. 

18. 

To draw a tangent between two circles. 

Join the centers C and c of the given circles ; 
draw the dotted circle arcs, and join the cross- 
ing m, n, which line cuts the center line at a. 
With a C as a diameter, draw the half circle 
a f C; and with n c as a diameter, draw the 
half circle c e a; then the crossings e and / are 
the tangenting points of the circles. 

19. 

With a given radius r, draw a circle that wili 
tangent the given line A B and the given circle 
C D. 

Add the given radius r to the radius R of the 
circle, and draw the arc c d. Draw the line c e 
parallel with and at a distance r from the line 
A B. Then the crossing c is the center of the 
required circle that will tangent the given line 
and circle. 

20. 

To find the center and radius of a circle that 
will tangent the given circle A B a.tC, and the 
line D E. 

Through the given point C, draw the tangent 
G F; bisect the angle F G E; then o is the 
center of the required circle that will tangent 
A B a.tC, and the line D E. 



21. 



To find the center and radius of a circle that 



[34] 




[35] 



(Circles) 



(Pentagons) 



will tangent the given line A B sX C, and the 
circle D E. 

Through the point C, draw the line E F at 
right angles to A B; set off from C the radius r 
of the given circle. Join G and F. With G 
and F as centers draw the arc crosses m and n. 
Join m n, and where it crosses the line E F is 
the center for the required circles. 

22. 

To find the center and radius of a circle that 
will tangent the given line A B at C, and the 
circle D E. 

From C, erect the perpendicular C G; set 
off the given radius r from C to H. With H 
as a center and r as radius, draw the cross 
arcs on the circle. Through the cross arcs 
draw the line / G; then G is the center of the 
circle arc F I C, which tangents the line at C 
and the circle at F. 

23. 

Between two given lines, draw two circles 
that will tangent themselves and the lines. 

Draw the center line A B between the given 
lines; assume D to be the tangenting point of 
the circles; draw D C at right angles to A B. 
With C as center and C D as radius, draw the 
circle E D F. From E, draw ^ w at right 
angles to E F; and from F draw F rii at right 
angles to F E; then m and n are the centers for 
the required circles. 

24. 

Draw a circle that will tangent two given 
lines A B and C D inclined to one another 
and the one tangenting point E being given. 

Draw the center line G F. From E, draw 
E F at right angles to A B; then F is the center 
of the circle required. 

2^. 

Draw a circle that will tangent two lines and 
go through a given point C on the line F C, 
whrch bisects the angle of the lines. 

Ihrough C draw A B at right angles to C F; 
bisect the angles DAB and E B A, and the 
crossing on C i^ is the center of the required 
circle. 

26. 

To draw a cyma, or two circle arcs, that will 
tangent themselves, and two parallel lines at 
given points A and B. . ; 

Join A and B; divide A B into four equal 
parts and erect perpendiculars. Draw A m 
at right angles from A, and B n at right angles 
from B; then m and n are the centers of the 
circle arcs of the required cyma. 

27. 

To draw a talon, or two circle arcs, that will 
tangent themselves, and meet two parallel 
lines a,t right angles in the given points A 
and B. 

Join ^4 and B; divide A B into four equal 
parts and erect perpendiculars; then m and n 
are the centers of the circle arcs of the required 
talon. 

28. 

To plot out a circle arc without recourse to 
its center, but its chord A B and height h being 
given. 

With the chord as radius, and A and B as 
centers, draw the dotted circle arcs A C and 
,.B D. Through the point O draw the lines 



AO o and B O o. Make the arcs C o = .A o and 
D o = B o. Divide these arcs into any desired 
number of equal parts, and number them as 
shown oil the illustration. Join A and B with 
the divisions, and the crossings of equal num- 
bers are points in the circle arc. 

29. 

To find the center and radius of a circle that 
will tangent the three sides of a triangle. 

Bisect two of the angles in the triangle, and 
the crossing C is the center of the required 
circle. 

30. 

To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a circle. 

With the radius of the circle and center C 
draw the arc D F E; with the same radius, 
and D and E as centers, set off the points A 
and B. Join A and B, B and C, C and A„ 
which will be the required triangle. 

31. 

To inscribe a square in a given circle. 

Draw the diameter A B, and through the 
center erect the perpendicular C D, and com- 
plete the square as shown in the illustration. 

32. 

To describe a square about a given circle. 

Draw the diameters A B and C D at right 
angles to one another; with the radius of the 
circle, and A, B, C, and D as centers, draw the 
four dotted half circles which cross one another 
in the corners of the square, and thus com- 
plete "the problem. 

33. 

To inscribe a pentagon in a given circle. 

Draw the diameter A B, and from the center 
C erect the perpendicular C D. Bisect the 
radius A C at E; with E as center, and D E 
as radius, draw the arc D E, and the straight 
line D F IS the length of the side of the penta^- 
gon. 

34. 

To construct a pentagon on a given line A B.. 

From B erect B C perpendicular to and half 
the length of A B; join A and C prolonged to- 
D; with C as a center and C B as radius, draw* 
the arc B D; then the chord B B is the radius, 
of the circle circumscribing the pentagon. 
With -4 and B as centers, and B D as radius^ 
draw the cross O.in the center. 

35. 

To construct a pentagon on a given line A B 
without resort to its center. 

From B erect B o perpendicular and equal to 
A B; with C as center and Co as radius, draw 
the arc D o; then A D is the diagonal of the 
pentagon. With ^ D as radius and A as cen- 
ter-, draw the arc 7) E; and with E as center 
and A B as radius, finish the cros.^ E, and thus 
complete the pentagon. 

36. 
■ To construct a hexagon in a given circle. 

The radius of the circle is equal to the side 
of the hexagon. 

37. 

To construct a Heptagon. 
The appotem a in a hexagon is the length of 
the side of the heptagon. 



[36] 



16 





gr 



^ A 




zs 










'>rj^ 



1 1*-^«,. 



5;? 





a:-- — - 






^l"*^?'-^^ 




^ c 




/r"A 


?^" 


_- 


JO 


/Y\ 


1^ 


V 


A 


W/ 


/a; 


^^jC 




^ 




/^^ 


^^ 


== 





>«*/ 



f'^ 




^.r--. 



^ tr 






B J- ^ 



^tf 

-B 



¥r 





[37] 



(Hyperbolas) 



(Ellipses) 



Set off ^ jB equal to the radius of the circle; 
draw a from the center C at right angles to 
A B; then a is the required side of the hep- 
tagon. 

38. 

To construct an octagon on the given line A B. 

Prolong A BioC. With B as center and A 
B as radius, draw the circle A F D E C; from 
B, draw B I at right angles to A B; divide the 
angles A B D and D B C each into two equal 
parts; then B E is one side of the octagon. 
With A and E as centers, draw the arcs H KE 
and A K I, which determine the points H and 
/. and thus complete the octagon as shown in 
tne illustration. 



To cut off the corners of a square, so as to 
make of it a regular octagon. 

With the corners as centers, draw circle arcs 
through the center of the square to the side, 
which determines the cut-oft. 

40. 

The area of a regular polygon is equal to the 
area of a triangle whose base is equal to the 
sum of all the sides, and the height a equal to 
the appotera of the polygon. 

The reason of this is that the area of two or 
more triangles ABC and ADC having a 
common or equal base h and equal height h arc 
alike. 

41. 

To construct any regular polygon on a given 
line A B without resort to its center. 

Extend A B io C and, with B as center, 
draw the half circle A D B. Divide the half 
circle into as many parts as the number of 
sides in the polygon, and complete the con- 
struction as shown on the illustration. 

42, 

To construct an isometric ellipse by com- 
pasess and six circle arcs. 

Divide O Ar and O B each into three equal 
parts; draw the quadrant A C. From C, draw 
the line C c through the point 1. Through the 
points 2 draw d e at an angle of 45° with the 
major axis. Then 2 is the center for the ends 
of the ellipse; e is the center for the arc d c; and 
C is the center for the arc c /. 

43. 

To construct a Hyperbola by plotting. 

Having given the transverse axis B C, vertexes 
A a, and foci / /'. Set off any desired number 
of parts on the axis below the focus, and num- 
ber them 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, etc Take the distance 
a 1 as radius, and, with /' as center, strike the 
cross 1 with /' 1 ==a 1. With the distanced 1, 
and the focus / as center, strike the cross 1 
with the radius F 1=A 1, and the cross 1 is a 
point in the hyperbola. 

44. 

To draw an Hyperbola by a pencil and a string. 
Having given the transverse axis B C, foci /' 
and /, and the vertexes A and a. Take a rule 
and fix it to a string at e; fix the other end of 
the string at the focus /. The length of the 
string should be such that when the rule R is 
in the position /'(7,the loop of the string should 
reach to A; then move the rule on the focus f. 



and a pencil at JP, stretching string, will trace 
the hyperbola. 

45. 

To construct a Parabola by plotting. 
Having given the axis, vertex, and focus of 
the parabola. Divide the transverse axis into 
any desired number of parts 1, 2, 3, etc., and 
draw ordinates through the divisions; take the 
distance A 1, and set it off on the 1st ordinate 
from the focus /to a, so that A 1 =/ a. Repeat 
the same operation with the other ordinates — 
that is. set off the distance A 5 from / to e, so 
that .4 5=/ e; and so the parabola is con- 
structed. 

46. 
To draw a Parabola wiih a pencil and a string. 

Having given the two axes, vertex, and focus 
of the parabola. Take a square cd e, and fix to 
it a string at e; fix the other end of the string 
at the focus /. The length of the string should 
be such that when the square is in the position 
of the axis A f, the string should reach to the 
vertex A. Move the square along B B, and 
the pencil P will describe the parabola. 

47. 

Shield's anti-fnction curve. 
R represents the radius of the shaft, and 
C 1, 2, 3, etc., is the center line of the shaft. 
From o, set off the small distance o a; and set 
off a 1=R. Set off the same .small distance 
from a to 6, and make b 2=R. Continue in 
the same way with the other points, and the 
anti-friction curve is thus constructed. 

48. 

Isometric Perspective. 

This kind of perspective admits of scale 
measurements the same as any ordinary draw- 
ing, and gives a clear representation of the 
object. It is easily learned. All horizontal 
rectangular lines are drawn at an angle of 30". 

AU circles are ellipses of proportion, 2^ 
shown in No. 42, on the following page. 

49. 

To construct an ellipse. 
With a as a center, draw two concentric cir- 
cles with diameters equal to the long and short 
axes of the desired ellipse. Draw from o any 
number of radii. A, B, etc. Draw a line B b' 
parallel to n and h b' parallel to m, then 6 is a 
point in the desired ellipse. 

50. 

To draw an ellipse with a string. 
Having given the two axes, set off from t 
half the great axis at a and 6, which are the 
two focuses of the ellipse. Take an endless 
string as long as the three sides in the tri- 
angle a 6 c, fix two pins or nails in the focuses, 
one in a and one in h, lay the string around a 
and 6, stretch it with a pencil d, which then 
will describe the desired ellipse. 

51. 

To draw an ellipse by circle arcs. 
Divide the long axis into three equal parts, 
draw the two circles, and where they intersect 
one another are the centers for the tangent 
arcs of the ellipse as .shown by the figure. 



[38] 




50 




51 




sz 



ss 



6^ 



55 









69 







6^ 





\ 




er 



€8 





7/ 



7^ 







h 


a6 


i 


d^ 


cOi 



.'"CO \\-J 



{a-6f 



A 



[39] 



(Cycloid) 



(Formulas for Circles) 



52. 

To draw an ellipse by circle arcs. 
Given the two axes, set off the short axis 
from A to b, divide b into three equal parts, 
set off two of these parts from o towards c 
and c which are the centers for the ends of the 
ellipse. Make equilateral triangles on c c, when 
e e will be the centers for the sides of the ellipse. 
If the long axis is more than twice the short 
one, this construction will not make a good 
ellipse. 

53. 

To construct an ellipse. 
Given the two axes, set off half the long axis 
from c to / /, which will be the two focuses in 
the ellipse. Divide the long axis into any 
number of parts, say a to be a division point. 
Take A a as radius and / as center and describe 
a circle arc about b, take a B as radius and / as 
center describe another circle arc about &,then 
the intersection 6 is a point in the ellipse, and 
so the whole ellipse can be constructed. 

54. 

To drtw an ellipse that ivill tangent two parallel 
lines in A and B. 
Draw a semicircle on A B, draw ordinates 
in the circle at right angle to A B, the corre- 
sponding and equal ordinates for the ellipse 
to be drawn parallel to the lines, and thus the 
elliptic curve is obtained as shown by the 
figure. 

55. 

To construct a cycloid. 

The circumference C = 3.14 D. Divide the 
rolling circle and base line C into a number of 
equal parts, draw -through the division point 
fehe ordinates and abscissas, make a a' = 1 d, 
i 6' = 2'e, c c=^3 f, then a b' and c' are points 
in the cycloid. In the Epicycloid and Hypo- 
cycloid the abscissas are circles and the ordi- 
nates are radii to one common center. 

56. 

Evolute of a circle. 

Given the pitch p, the angle v, and radius r. 
Divide the angle v into a number of equal parts, 
draw the radii and tangents for each part, 
divide the pitch p into an equal number of 
<»qual parts, then the first tangent will be one 
part, second two parts, third three parts, etc., 
and so the Evolute is traced. 

57. 

To construct a spiral with compasses and four 
centers. 
Given the pitch of the spiral, construct a 
square about the center, with the four sides 
together equal to the pitch. Prolong the 
sides in one direction as shown by the figure, 
the corners are the centers for each arc of the 
external angles. 



58. 



To construct a Parabola. 



Given the vertex A, axis x, and a point P. 
Draw A B a.t right angle to x, and B P parallel 
to X, divide A B and B P into an equal num- 
ber of equal parts. From the vertex A draw 
lines to the divisions on B P, from the divi- 



sions on A B draw the ordinates parallel to x, 
the corresponding intersections are points iii 
the parabola. 

59. 

To construct a Parabola. 
Given the axis of ordinate B, and vertex A . 
Take A as a center and describe a semicircle 
from B which gives the focus of the parabola at 
/. Draw any ordinate y at right angle to the 
abscissa A r, take a as radius and the focus / 
as a center, then intersect the ordinate^!/, by 
a circle-arc in P which will be a point in the 
parabola. In the same manner the whole 
Parabola is constructed. 

60. 

To draw an arithmetic spiral. 
Given the pitch p and angle v, divide them 
into an equal number of equal^parts, say 6; 
makeO 1 = 1,0 2= 2,03 = 03,04 = 04,05 
= 5, and 6 = the pitch p; then join the 
points 1, 2, 8, 4, 5 and 6, which will form the 
spiral required, 

THE CIRCLE. 
Notation of Letters. 
d = diameter of the circle. 
r = radius of the circle. 
p = periphery or circumference, 
a = area of a circle or part thereof. 
6 = length of a circle arc. 
c = chord of a segment, length of. 
A = height of asegment. 
s = side of a rectangular polygon 
v = center angle. 
w = polygon angle. 

All measures must be expressed by the samo 
unit. 

FORMULAS FOR THE CIRCLE. 

Periphery or Circumference. 
p = n rf=3.14rf. 
p = 2n r = 6.28r. 
p=^2 V re a = S.54: V a. 

2a 4a 
p= _ = _. 
r a 



d = 



Diameter and Radius. 
P V 



_ V 

2n 

d = 2 



3.14 
P 
6.28 



\/—=1.12SVa 

r = |/— = 0.564 Vo. 

Area of the CirclCo 



a= = 0.785^2 

4 

o=wr2=3.14r2 



[40 1 



cv 


r< 6 . 


1-''-'' 




a^ 






73 



y\ 



76 




tr 



79 



SO 




ae 



X 


\ 




X 




ei 



ez 



65 






85 







6 ■ ' 



90 








96 





[41] 



(Formulas for Circles) 



(Miscellaneous Formulas) 



p2 p2 








62. 














TtTV 


4r 12.56 










6= O.OlTSn;, 


■pr pd 










180 


°'~ 2~ \ 










180& 6 
v= = 57.296-. 


;r= 3.14159266358979323846264338327950288 I 


nr r 


4197169399 








63. 




2;r = 6.283185 








V 


3;r = 9.424778 










w =180 , 


45r= 12.566370 










2 


5;r= 15.707963 












6;r= 18.849556 










t;=2(180'»— tc). 


7r= 21.991] 48 








64. 




87r = 25. 132741 










c2 + 4,'i2 e2 


9;r= 28.274334 










8^ 2h 


i^ = 0.785398 












i;r= 1.047197 


c = 2V2hr — h\ 


^^ = 1.570796 








65. 




i;r = 0.392699 

1 rk. rrooprirk 










ac 


t?r = 0.523599 












■^;r = 0.261799 
|7r = 2.094394 


y._(f!i^). 


Tj|5;r = 0.008726 












1 








66. 




- = 0.318310 
2 


V-(^-)^ 


-=0.636619 








r 


= 


n 
3 
- = 0.954929 










a+6+c 








67. 




It 
4 
-=1.273239 










r=v, vo^w. 










w+t>==180*,tt'>i;. 


1Z 

6 








68. 




-=1.909859 










D = B+C, A'-^B' + C^lSXf, 


It 
8 










B=D—C, A +B +C-180*, 


-=2.546478 










A'==A, B'^B. 


12 

— = 3.819718 








69. 


^+B+C=180% 


360 










A'^A, B'='B. 


=114.5915 












J= ^.869650 








70. 


^+C=^+D = 180°. 


4,/;: = 1.772453 
y - = 0.564189 




















D=B+c. 
E=A+B. 


A 








71. 




j/-= 1.253314 










(a+&)2=o2+2a6+6* 


y — ^0.797884 








72. 


(a— 6)2=o2— 2a&+62. 


Log" ff = 0.49714987 








73. 




61. 

The periphery of a Circle 


s commonly 


ex- 




(a + 6) (a— 6)=a:^62. 


pressed by the Greek letter n 


= 3.14 


when 


the 






diameter d=l or the unit. 


For 


any other 


74. 




value of the diameter d, we 


will 


denote 


the 




a : b = c : d. 


periphery by the letter v,t = 


= radius, and 


a = 






area of the circle. The periphery of a circle 




ad = bc. 


is equal to 3 14-100 times its 


diameter. 






c= chord. 










A=B. 



[42] 



(Miscellaneous Formulas) 



(Miscellaneous Formulas) 



75. 


a : b = c : d. 




ad = bc. 


76. 


a : c=c : b. 




ab = cK 




c= Vab. 


77. 


A : B=a :b. 


78. 


a r. x=x : a—x, 




. = |/.3+(l)L"- 


79. 


c2 = a2 + 62, 




„2^C2— 62 




62=c2— a?. 


«0. 


c2=a2+&2— 26d, 




h= Va-i—d^. 




a2 + 62_-(.2 

26 


SI. 


c2=a2+62 + 26rf, 




^2= |/ a2— ci2, 




C2_^2_62 

26 


82. 


a : b = h'. c. 




ac ad 


83. 


c2 ch 
a : c=<f t (6— d), 




a6 

d= , 

c + a 




v=v. 


84. 


a : c=6 ; rf. 




Gd=6c. 


85. 


a'.t=ti hr 




fi-^ab. 


86. 


<2=(a + 6) (o— 6y^ 




= V a2— 62. 



87. 



88. 



89. 



90; 



aR 



/e— r 
t 

t= 4,/ a2— (72— r)2, sin.v = — . 



<= Va2— (i2+r)2, 



a= 'K<2 + (/2 + r)2. 



/ 52 
F = r— |/ r2 I = 2j--r, 

5 = 2 i/r2— (r— y)2. r = Hl + V). 



-/. 



T2(f2, 



/ = n V;:2rf2 + p2, 
I 



Vn^d^ + P. 



91. 



T'o /ind the length of a Spir^. 
7rr2 I r 



l = xrn- 



P = = -. P = Pitch. 

I n 



92. 



93. 



94. 



yo /ind the length of a Spiral. 
l = 7:n (R+r), 



P 



Periphery of an Ellipse. 



96. 



p = 2 y D2+ 1.467 4d2. 

To coDstruct a screw Helix. 

To square a Circumference. . 
fi = 0.555355 rf = 1.1 107 r = 0.707 15. 
S = 0.785398 d = 1 .57079 r = 1 .4142 R 
d= 1.27322 5 = 1.79740 72 = 2r. 

To square a Circleplane. 
72 = 0.626657 <i= 1.253314 r = 0.707l5» 
5 = 0.886226 d= 1.77245 r= 1.4142 R 
<i= 1.12838 5= 1.5367 R = 2r 



[433 



(Tables of Volumes and Surface Areas of Solids) 



Title. 



Figure. 



Volume. 



Surface Area. 



Any prism . 

Rectangular 
prism or 
cuboid . . 



Cube 



Square prism 



Hexagonal 
prism . 



Octagonal 
prism . 



Cylinder . . 



Hollow cylin- 
der . . 



Elliptical 
prism 



Area of base 

X height 

ibh 






Sphere 



Hollow 
sphere 





SH 



2-6SH 
or -866/2/ 



4-8352/ 
•829/2/ 



or •7854^/5 



*(R2 - r^)h 



:bh 



Xr^ or ^D' 
3 6 

(or -523603) 



Yi^'-r") 



Circumference of base 

X height 



~«t}=^('^+'*+''*) 



Whole area = 6S2 



Lateral surface = 4S/ 
Ends = aS" 



Lateral = 6S/ or 3-46// 
(For ends see Table in 
Chap. VII.) 



Lateral = 8S/ or 3 32// 



Lateral = 2Tryh 
Two ends = 2x^2 
Whole area = 2irr{h + r) 

Outer lateraH « t?. 

surface )=2irRA 
Inner lateral \ - , 

surface j-^xyA 



Lateral = Trh{i^5{a + b) 

-Vab) 
or ir(a+6)A (less accu- 
rate) 



4?rR* 



4»(R2 + i'a) 



— From Clapham's Arithmetic for Engineers, 
[44. 



(Tables of Volumes and Surface Areas of Solids) 



Title. 



Segment of 
sphere . . 



Zone of 
sphere . . 

Any pyramid 



Square pyra- 
mid . . . 



Cone 



Frustum of 
any pyra- 
mid . . . 



Frustum of 
square 
pyramid . 



Frustum of 
cone . . . 



Anchor ring 



Figure. 




i-^X^ i* 




A = height of frus- 
tum 
A=area of large end 
a=:area of small end 



Volume. 




or •523^H3r*-\-h^) 



^ area of base 

X height 



iS^A 



^wr^h 



'(A + a+VAa) 



[{S^ + s^+Ss) 



(R2 4- y2 -f Rr) 



Round section 



Square section 

7rDS2 



Surface Area. 



Curved surface = ^vRh 
or 2irR(R— VR2 — y2) 
where R=rad. of sphere 



Lateral = ^ circum. of 
base X slant height 



I^ateral = 2S/ 



Lateral = irrl 



Lateral=| mean circum. 
X slant height 



Laterals 2l'7^ + s) 
(/ = slant height) 



Lateral = it/ (R-^y) 
{I = slant height) 



^ir^y 



4tDS 



-From Clapham's Arithmetic for Engineers. 



[45] 




Equilateral 
triangle 



Hexagon . 



Octagon 



Trapezoid 



Irregular 
quadrilate 
ral or tra 
pezium . 



Circle 



Area. 



lb 



.s^ or 



Ih 



ah 

2. 



Vs{s-a){s^b){s-c) 



•4335* 



2 -65* or -866/* 



4-835* or Sigp 



i^) 



Divide into two tri- 
angles by either diagonal. 
Find area of each tri- 
angle and add. 

Ih 
Or area = — - 



4 
or rrr^ = yj42r^ 



-From Clapham's Arithmetic for Enginaers. 
[46] 



Title. 



Hollow circle 
(annulus) . 



Hollow circle 
(eccentric) 



Sector of 
circle . 



Sector of hol- 
low circle 



Fillet . . . 



Segment of 
circle . 



Ellipse 



Irregular 
figures 



Figure. 



A'/ 

m 








TJ 

-rib 


@? 






Circumference of 
Perimeter. 



/ = 



57-3 



|\. 





7r(a + 6) approx 
or 7r{i'5(a-f b) 
— Vab] more 
nearly 



Step round 
curved por- 
tions in small 
steps, with 
dividers; add 
in any straight 
pieces. 



Area. 



or ^{R^-r^) 

or -TT X mean dia. x thick- 
ness 

•7854^'-^) 
or ir{R2 - y2) 



360 



Ir 



yw(R'-y») 
360 



•215^2 or approx. Ir^ 



Area = sector — triangle 
Various approx. for- 
mulae on p. 300. 



rab 



Divide into narrow 

strips ; measure their 

mid-ordinates. Then — 

Area = aver, mid-ordi- 

nate x length / 



— From Clapham's Arithmetic for Engineers. 
[47] 



CHAPTER IV. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



LINEAR MEASURE. 



3 barleycorns, or. 

12 lines, or i , • t^ /• n 

72 points, or f ^ ^^^'^ ''^^'^ 



:]n. 



1,000 mils (mi.) 

3 inches 1 palm 

4 inches 1 hand 

9 inches 1 span 

12 inches 1 foot (ft.) 

18 inches 1 cubit 

3 feet 1 yard (yd.) 

2i feet 1 military pace 

5 feet 1 geometrical pace 

2 yards 1 fathom 

5i yards . 1 rod, pole, or perch 

^ti^;°' [iGunter'a chain 

8 furlongs, or I 

1,760 yards, or )-l mile 

6.280 feet .• \ 

3 miles 1 league 

The hand Is used to measure horses' height. 
The military pace is the length of the ordinary 
etep of a maru One thousand geometrical 
paces were reckoned to a mile. 

LAND MEASURE ( LINEAR). 

7.92 inches 1 link 

100 links, or 1 

i !S^ds%v ••.::::::: [i^haincch.) 

4 poles . . .. ^ ........ j 

10 chains 1 furlong (fur.) 

80 chains, or | ^ ^.i^ 

8 furlongs ^ °^'^« 



LAND MEASURE (SQUARE). 

144 sq. inches. . . 1 square foot (sq. ft.) 

9 square feet. . 1 square yard (sq. yd.) 

30i sq, yards, . . 1 sq. pole, rod, or perch 

16 sq. poles. ... 1 square chain (aq. ch.) 



1 sq. rood 



1 acre * 



40 sqc^ poles, or i 

1,210 sq. yards. . 

4 roods, or . , " 

10 sq. chs., or . 

160 sq. poles, or 

: 4,840 sq. yds., or. 

43,560 sq. ft , 

640 acres. Or. .. I ^ -, 

3,097,600 sq, yds | ^ ^^' ™^^® 

30 acres, ; , 1 yard of land 

100 acres 1 hide of land 

40 hides 1 barony 

CUBIC MEASURE, 

1,728 cubic inches .1 cubic foot 

27 cubic* feet. ..,,.;.! cubic or solid yard 

* The side of a square having an area of an 
ftcre is equal to 69.57 linear yards. 



GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL MEASURE. 

6086.44 feet, or. 1 

1,1528 statute miles, .. J 

1 nautical mile I _ ■, . x 

per hour J- -1 knot 

60 nautical miles.orl 1 ^ 
67.168 statute miles. ..\~^ aegree 
360 degrees = 1 circumfer- 

ence of the earth at the equator 

1 league .....= 3 nautic'l miles 

1 cable's length. ...~ 120 fathoms 

DRY MEASURE, U. S. Qyj^ Jn. 

2 pints . 1 quart (qt.) = 67.20 

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) = 268.80 

4 pecks 1 struck bushel =2150.42 

LIQUID MEASURE, U. S. Q^^ J^. 

4 gills 1 pint (O.) = 28.875 

2 pints 1 quart. (qt.) = 57,75 

4 quarts ,1 gallon (gal.) =231. 

63 gallons 1 hogshead (hhd.) 

2 hogsheads 1 pipe or butt 

2 pipes 1 tun 

apothecaries' liquid MEASURE. 

Apothecaries' or Wine" Measure is used by 
pharmacists of this country. Its denomina- 
tions are gallon, -pint, fluid ounce, fluid 
drachm, and minim, as follows: 
Cong. O. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims. 
1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440 
1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 
1 = 8 = 480 

1 -= 60 

1 
The Imperial Standard Measure is used by 
British pharmacists. Its denominations arid 
their relative value are: 

Gal. Quarts. Pints. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims. 

1 = 4 = 8 =.160 = 1,280 = 76,800 

1 = 2 = 40 = 320 = 19,200 

1 = 20 == 160 = 9,600 

1 = 8 = 480 

1 == 60 

The relative value of United States Apothe- 
caries ' and British Imperial Measures is as 
follows: 

< Imperial Measure. 

U-S, . . § 

Apothe- M *« ir* .§ 

caries' .S .S 

Measure, p^ fa pij S 

1 Gallon = .83311 Gallon, or 6 13 2 22.85 
1 Pint = .83311 Pint, or 16 5 17.86 
1 Fl. Oz. = 1.04139 Fl. Oz., or 1 19.86 
1 Fl. Dr. = 1.04139 Fl. Dr., or 1 2.48 

1 Minim =1.04139 Minim, or 1.04 



[48 1 



(Avoirdupois Weight) 



(Troy Weight) 



OLD WINE AND SPIRIT MEASURE. 

Imperial 
Gals. 
4 gills or quarterns. . 1 pint 

2 pints 1 quart 

4 quarts (231 cu. in.)l gallon = .8333 

10 gallons 1 anchor = 8.333 

18 gallons 1 bunlef = 15 

3U gallons 1 barrel = 26.25 

42 gallons 1 tierce = 35 

1fSS.°V.-.-.::h hogshead =52.5 

?tro'Xds;;:;:f>p''-heo„=7o 

126 gallons, or ) 

2 hogsheads or . . Vl pipe or =105 
H puncheons ) butt 

2 pipes or K^ ^210 

3 puncheons f 

Apothecaries' Weight is the oflBcinal 
standard of the United States Pharmacopoeia. 
; In buying and selling medicines not ordered 
': by prescriptions avoirdupois weight is used. 

Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 

1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 

1 8 = 24 = 480 

1 = 3 = 60 

1 = 20 

Avoirdupois Weight. — Used for weighing 
: all goods except those for which troy and 
apothecaries' weight are employed. 
I Gross 
or Long 

Ton. Cwt. Qr. Lb. Oz. Dr. 

I = 20 = 80 = 2.240 = 35,840 = 573,440 
1=4= 112 = 1,792 = 28,672 
1 = 28 = 448 = 7,168 
1 = 16 = 256 

1 = 16 

Short 
or Net 

Ton. Cwt. Qr. Lb. Oz. Dr. 

1 = 20 = 80 = 2,000 = 32,000 = 512,000 
1=4= 100 = 1,G00 = 25,600 
1 = 25 = 400 = 6,400 
1 = 16 = 256 

I = 16 

The "short" ton of 2,000 lbs. is used com- 
monly in the United States. The British 'or 
"long" tan, used to some extent in the United 
States, contains 2,240 lbs., corresponding to a 
cwt. of 112 and a quarter of 28 lbs. 

Troy Weight. — Used by jewelers and at the 
mints, in the exchange of the precious rnetals. 
Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

r = 12 = 240 = 5760 
1 = 20 = 480 
1 = 24 

7000 troy grams = 1 lb. avoirdupois. 
175 troy pounds = 144 lb. avoirdupois. 
175 troy ounces = 192 or,, avoirdupois. 
4371 troy grains = 1 oz. avoirdupois. 
1 troy pound = .8228 + lb. avoirdupois. 
The common standard of weight by which 
the relative values of these systems are com- 
pared is the grain, which for this purpose may 
be regarded as the unit of weight. The pound 
troy and that of apothecaries' weight have 
each five thousand seven hundred and sixty 
grains; the pound avoirdupois has seven 
thousand grains. 

The relative proportions and values of these 
several systems are as follows : 



Troy. Avoirdupois, 

Oz. Dr. 

1 pound equals 13 2.65 

1 ounce equals 1 1.55 

1 dwt. equals 0.877 

Troy. Apothecaries'. 

Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 

1 pound equals 1 

1 ounce equals 1 

1 dwt. equals 0" 1 4 

1 grain equals 1 

Apothecai-ies'. Avoirdupois. 

Oz. ■ Dr. 

1 pound equals 13 2.65 

1 ounce equals 1 1.55 

1 drachm equals 2.19 

1 scruple equals 0.73 

Apothecaries'. Troy. 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

1 pound equals 1 

1 ounce equals 1 

1 drachm equals 2 12 

1 scruple equals 20 

Avoirdupois. — : Troy. • 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

1 long ton equals 2722 2 13 8 

1 cwt. equals 136 1 6 16 

1 quarter equals 34 6 16 

1 pound equals 1 2 11 16 

1 ounce equals 18 514 

1 drachm equals 1 3'>^2 

Avoirdupois. = — Tr-oy. 

Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 

1 short ton equals 2430 6 13 8 

1 cwt. equals 121 6 6 16 

1 quarter equals 30 4 11 16 

Avoirdupois. Apothecaries'. 

Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 

1 pound equals 1 2 4 2 

1 ounce equals 7 17H 

1 drachm equals 1 7^>^2 

Diamond Measure. 
15 parts =1 grain = 0.8 troy grains, 
4 grains = 1 carat = 3.2 troy grains. 

HoDSEHOLD Measures. — Nothing is more 
vague and inaccurate than such expressions 
as: "A cupful, a wineglass." Anattempthas 
been made to reduce these measures to some 
scale. In these liquid measures the glass is 
supposed to be filled i inch from the top. A 
"wineglass" is very apt to be a claret glass. 
If the diameter is 2f inches and the depth 2|- 
inches from rim to bottom, the glass will hold 
3^ fl. oz. = 105 cubic centimeters. A sherry 
glass is also a common wine glass and is flar- 
ing. If its top is 2i inches in diameter it 
should hold 1^^ fl. oz., or 45 cubic centimeters, 
A liquor glass, usually called a whiskey glass, 
varies greatly, but if 3 inches high and 2i 
inches in diameter and slightly flaring it 
Jholds 4 fl. oz., or 120 cubic centimeters. A 
cocktail glass is peculiar ; the diameter of the 
"Union League" model Is 2i inches, depth 
If inch, round flare, holds 2 fl. oz. = 60 cubic 
centimeters. A "liqueur" glass having a 
diameter of 1^ inches, 2i inches deep, flaring 
sides, holds ^ oi a, fluid ounce, or 20 cubic cen- 
timeters. A straight-sided soda glass, 6^ 
inches high by 2| inches in diameter, holds 10 
fl. oz., or 300 cubic centimeters. A -^ liter 
stein, 2i inches in diameter and .3^^ inches deep, 
holds 10 fl. oz., or 300 cubic centimeters as 
ordinarily filled- 



[49] 



(Household Measures) 



120 drops water .....= 1 teaspoon 

60 " thick fluid =1 

60 =1 oz. 

2 teaspoons =1 dessert-spoon 

3 " =1 tablespoon 

16 tablespoons =1 cup 

1 cup =? pint 

1 " water = i lb. 

4 tablespoons flour =1 oz. 

2 tablespoons butter. . . ". =1 " 

3 teaspoons soda ?= i " 

4 " baking powder =^ " 

2 cups granulated sugar = 1 lb. 

2* ' ' confectioners' sugar =1 " 

2t ' ' wheat flour =1 " 

3^ ** whole-wheat flour =1 " 



2* cups buckwheat flour 

5* ' ' coffee 

6^ " tea . . 

2 • * rice 

2 " lard 

2 ' ' butter 

2 " graham flour. . .■ . 

2 * ' rye flour 

2 * * corn meal 

2 ' ' rolled oats 

2 ' ' powdered sugar. . 

2 ' ' brown " . . 

2 " raisins 

2 ' ' currants 

2 ' ' bread crumbs. . . , 



lb. 



FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

The following table embraces only such weights and measures as are given from time to 
time in Consular Reports and in Commercial. Relations: 

Foreign weights and measures, with American equivalents. 



Denominations. 


Where Used. 


American Equivalents. 


Almude 


Portugal. . . 


4.422 gallons. 
7.6907 bushels. 


Ardeb. 


Egypt 


Are 


Metric. . . 


02471 acre 


Arobe. . 


Paraguay . . ... 


25 pounds. 








Arroba (dry) 

Do 




25.3175 pounds. 
32.38 pounds. 
25.3664 pounds 
32.38 pounds. 
25.36 pounds. 
25.4024 pounds. 


Brazil 


Do. ... 


Cuba. ... ... 


Do 


Portugal . ■ 


Do. 




Do 




Arroba (liouid). 


Cuba, Spain, and Venezuela 


4.263 gallons. 




28 inches. 


Arshine (square) 

Artel 


Do. . . 


5.44 square feet. 




Baril. 

Barrel 


Argentine Republic and Mexico . . . 
Malta (customs). 


20.0787 gallons. 
11.4 gallons. 
100 pounds. 


Do. . . 


Spain (raisins). 






Berkovets. » 


Russia 


361.12 pounds. 


Bongkal 




832 grains. 


Bouw. .... 


Sumatra 


7,096.5 square meters. 


Bu 




0.1 inch. 


Butt (wine). , 


Spain 


140 gallons. 
5.4 gallons. 
529 pounds. 


CafEso 


Malta. . . 


Candy. , . .. . 


India (Bombay) 


Do. . . 


India (Madras) 


500 pounds. 
113 pounds. 
575 pounds. 
124.7036 pounds. 
175 pounds. 
300 pounds. 
1.333* (U) pounds. 
1.31 pounds. 
1.35 pounds. 
2.12 pounds. 
4.2631 gallons. 
117.5 pounds. 
110.24 pounds. 
110.11 pounds. 

112.43 pounds. 

113.44 pounds. 
93.7 pounds. 
123.5 pounds. 
110.24 pounds. 


Cantar. 




Do 


Syria (Damascus). . . 


Do 


Turkey. 


Cantaro (cantfir) 


Malta. ... 


Carga 




Cattv. . 


China . 


D6.1.;:::::::::::::::: 




Do 




Do. . . 


Sumatra. . . . 






Centner. . 


Bremen and Brunswick. . . 


Do 


Darpjw tadt. . . . 


Do 




Do .... 


Nuremberg. 


Do 


Prussia 


Do 




Do 


Vienna. -. . . 


Do 


ZoUverein 


> More frequently callec 
pounds avoirdupois. 


I "kin." Among merchants in th 


3 treaty ports it equals 1.33} 



rso] 



(Foreign Weights and Measures) 



Denominations. 


Where Used. 


American Equivalents. 




Double or metric 


220.46 pounds. 
5.7748 bushels. 






Chih. . . 


China. ... 


14 inches. 




Sarawak 


3,098 pounds 
2,667 pounds. 
4 2 acres. 


Do 

Cuadra. 


Siam (Koyan). . 

Argentine RepubUc. 

Paraguay 


Do 


78.9 yards. 


Do 


Paraguay (square). 


8.077 square feet. 


Do 








Metric 


35.3 cubic feet. 




British 


112 pounds. 


Dessiatine 


Russia 


2.6997 acres. 


Do 


Toain. 


1.599 bushels. 








Fanega (dry) 


Central America. 


1.5745 bushels. 


Do. . . 


Chile. . 


2.575 bushels. 


Do 


Cuba 


1.599 bushels. 


Do 


Mexico 


1.54728 bushels. 


Do 






Do. 

Do 


Uruguay (double) 

Uruguay (single). . 


fanega, 118 pounds. 
7.776 bushels. 
3.888 bushels. 


Do 


Venezuela 


1.599 bushels. 


Fanega (liquid) 

Feddan. . . ... 




16 gallons. 


Egypt 


1.03 acres. 




Spain. 


50 pounds. 


Frasco 


Argentine Republic 


2.5096 quarts. 


Do. . . . 


Mexico. . 


2.5 quarts. 


Frasila 




35 pounds. 


Fuder. . 


Luxemburg. . . 


264 17 gallons. 


Funt : . . . . 


Russia 


0.9028 pound. 
0.88 gallon. 






Gram 


Metric. ... 


15.432 grains. 


Hectare 


Do 

Do 


2.471 acres. 


Hectoliter. 

Dry 


2.838 bushels. 




Do 


26.417 gallons. 


Joch. 


Austria-Hungary. . . . 


1.422 acres. 






6 feet. 


Kilogram (kilo). . . 


Metric 


2.2046 pounds. 


Kilometer 


Do 


0.621376 mile. 


Klafter 




216 cubic feet. 


Koku, 


Japan. . 


4.9629 bushels. 






3.5 bushels 


Kwari. ... 




8.28 pounds. 


Last 




85.134 bushels. 


Do. " 




82.52 bushels. 


Do. . . 


Germany 


2 metric tons (4,480 pounds)* 


Do 




112.29 bushels. 


Do. . . 


Russian Poland 


H| bushels. 


Do. . . 


Spain (salt). 


4,700 pounds. 






4,033 acres. 




China. . 

Argentine Republic. . . 


2,115 feet. 


X/ibra (pound) 


1.0127 pounds. 


Do '. . 




i.043 pounds. 


Do 


Chile 


1.014 pounds. 


Do . . . 


Cuba. .... 


1.0161 pounds. 


Do 




1.01465 pounds. 


Do. ... 


Peru 


1.0143 pounds. 


Do 


Portugal . . 


1.011 pounds. 


Do. ... 


Spain 

U ruguay 


1.0144 pounds. 


Do. . . 


1.0143 pounds. 


Do 


Venozuela 

Metiic 


1.0161 pounds. 


Liter. . 


1.0567 quarts. 


Livre (pound) 


Greece. '. . 


1.1 pounds. 


Do 


Guiana . ... 


1.0791 pounds. 


Load 






Costa Rica 


hewn, 40 cubic feet; inch 
planks, 600 superficial feet. 


Do .. 


Nicaragua and Salvador 


1.727 acres. 



[51] 



(Foreign Weights and Measures) 



Denominations. 


Where Used. 


American Equivalents, 


Marc 


Bolivia 


0.507 pound. 


Maund. . . . 


India 


82? pounds. 
39.37 inches. 


Meter 




Mil . 


Denmark. . 


4.68 miles 


Do. . . . 




4.61 miles." 


MiUa 

Morgen 


Nicaragua and Honduras. ...... 

Prussia 


1.1493 miles. 
0.63 acre. 


Oke 


Egypt 


2.7225 pounds. 


Do 


Greece 


2.84 pounds. 


Do 




3.0817 pounds. 
2.82838 pounds. 
2.5 pints. 


Do 


Turkey. . 


Do 




Pic 


Egypt. . . . 


21i inches. 


Picul 


Borneo and Celebes. . . 


135.64 pounds. 


Do. ... 


China, Japan, and Sumatra 

Java. . . . 


133i pounds. 
135.1 pounds. 


De.' 


Do 




137.9 pounds. 


Pie 


Argentine Republic. . . 


0.9478 foot. 


Do 


Spain 


0.91407 foot. 


Pile. 


Turkey . . 


27.9 inches. 


Pood 




36.112 pounds. 


Pund (pound). . ... 


Denmark and Sweden. 


1.102 pounds. 






8.252 bushels. 


Do 


London (coal) 


36 bushels. 


Quintal 


Argentine Republic 

Brazil. 


101.42 pounds. 


Do. . . . 


130.06 pounds. 


Do 


Castile,' Chile, Mexico, and Peru . . 
Greece 


101.41 pounds. 


Do 


123.2 pounds. 


Do 




Do 


Paraguay 


100 pounds. 


Do 


Syria 


125 pounds. 


Do 


Metric 


220.46 pounds 


Rottle . 


Palestine 

Syria 


6 pounds. 


Do 


5J pounds. 


Sagene'. * , . 


Russia . . 


7 feet. 


Salm 


Malta. . . 


490 pounds. 


Se 




0.02451 acre. 


Seer . 


India. . 


1 pound 13 ounces 


Shaku. 


Japan .... 


11.9305 inches. 


Sho 


bo... 


1.6 quarts. 
165 cubic feet. 


Standard (St. Petersburg). 


Lumber measure. . 


Stone 


British 




Suerte 




2,700 cuadras (.see cuadra). 
1 193 inches 


Sun 


Japan. 


Tael 


Cochin Cbj/ia. 

Japan. = 


590.75 grains (troy). 


Tan 


25 acre 


To 


To ..:::: '::: 


2 pecks. 


Ton 






Tonde (cereals) 


Denmark 


3.94783 bushels. 


Tondeland. . 


Do. ... 


1 36 acres 


Tsubo 




6 feet square. 
1 41 inches. 


Tsun. 


China. . . . 


Tunna 


Sweden 


4.5 bushels. 




Sweden 


1.22 acres. 


Vara 


Argentine Republic. . . 


34.1208 inches. 


Do , : 


Centroi America 


32.87 inches. 


Do 


Chile and Peru 


33.367 inches. 


Do 


Cuba 


33.384 inches. 


Do 




33.375 inches. 


Do, ... 


Mexico 


33 inches 


Do. 4 


Paraguay 

Spain 


34 inches. 


Do. . . , 


0.914117 yard. 
33.384 inches. 


Do 




Vedro. . . 


Russia. 


2.707 gallons. 
71.1 equare rods. 






Verst. . . 


Russia . . . 


Vlocka 


Russian Poland 


41.98 acres. 



* Although the metric weights are used officially in Spain, the Castile quintal is employed 
in comnierce in tke Feninsiila and colonies, save in Catalonia; the Catalan quintal equiils 
91.71 pounds. 



[52] 



(Decimal or Metric System) 



A meter is one ten-millionth of the distance 
from the equator to the North Pole. 




The metric system, formed on the meter as 
the unit of length, has four other leading units, 
all connected with and dependent upon this. 
The are, the unit of surface, is the square of 
ten meters. The liter, the unit of capacity, 
is the cube of a tenth part of the meter. The 
stere, the unit of solidity, has the capacity of 
a cubic meter. The gram, the unit of 
weight, is the weight of that quantity of dis- 
tilled water at its maximum density which 
fills the cube of a hundredth part of the meter. 
Each unit has its decimal multiple and sub- 
multiple, that is, weights and measures ten 
times larger or ten times smaller than the 
principal unit. The prefixes denoting the 
multiples are derived from the Greek, and 
are deca, ten; heclo, hundred; 'kilo, thousand; 
and myria, ten thousand. Those denoting 
sub-multiples are taken from the Latin, and 
are deci, ten ; centi, hundred ; milli, thousand. 



Relative Value. 


Length. 


Surface. 


Capacity. 


Solidity. 


Weight. 


10,000 


Myriameter 

Kilometer 

Hectometer 

Decameter 

Meter 

Decimeter 

Centimeter 

Millimeter 










1,000 




Kiloliter 

Hectoliter 

Decaliter 

Liter 

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 




Kilogram 
Hectogram 


100 


Hectare 




10 


Dekastere 

Stere 

Decistere 




Unit...: 


Are 

Deciare 

Centiare 


Gram 


0.1..... 

01. . . 


Decigram 
Centigram 
Milligram 


0.001 





APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF THE FRENCH (METRIC) AND 
ENGLISH MEASURES. 

I yard. . « \h meter. 

II meters 12 yards. 

To convert meters into yards Add xVth. 

1 ^^t^y. 1 1 „^ . ^ 1 f+ j 3 ft. 3i inches Uhth. less). 

1 meter = l.l yd.; 3.3 ft . -j ^q ^^^^.^68 (1.6 per cent less). 

I meter, by the Standards Commission =39.38203 inches. 

1 meter, by the Act of 1878 =39.37079 inches. 

1 foot 3 decimeters (more exactly 3.048). 

1 inch 25 millimeters (more exactly 25.4). 

1 mile 1.6 or If kilometers (more exactly 1.60931). 

1 kilometer i of a mile. 

1 chain (22 yards) 20 meters (more exactly 20.1165). 

5 furlongs (1.100 yards) 1 kilometer (more exactly 1.005S). 

1 square yard ? square meter (more exactly .8361). 

1 square meter \ }?* ^^"^^^ ^^^h 

^ liici-ci ^ ji square yards. 

1 square inch 6^ square centimeters (more exactly 6.45). 

1 square mile (640 acres) 260 hectares (0.4 per cent less). 

1 acre (4840 square yards) 4000 square meters (1.2 per cent more). 

1 cubic yard -J cubic meter (2 per cent more). 

1 cubic meter H cubic yards (H per cent less). 

1 cubic meter 35^ cubic feet (.05 per cent less). 

1 cubic meter of water 1 long ti>n nearly. 

1 kilogram 2.2 pounds fully. 

I'SetSX" " ; .;.■. :::::::::;:::::::::::: h '-^ *- --'^- 

1 long hundredweight 51 kilograms nearly. 

1 United States hundredweight 45^ kilograms nearly . 

[53] 



(Metric Measures) 



a.i 




ic^«oo-<f< S990C-* oii5-HO>^ 






e^c^oooi 



S II fl R D 



<o<»ooe-io 



II II 



«' 11-2 



OS CO 

n n n 11 o.ii g n n n n n n n li hi 






|: : 



1=11 






'^iiil I 

t- 3 o 9 a Js 

OOp40fl4 P( 



M 




a 




tf 




tD 




02 




<< 


• 


w 


u 


§ 


i 




Q 




1 


&>| 


^ 


w 


.2 




OS CO l>» O CO »-H i-H ic «0 «0 CO iF^ 
eOOiCOOOOXN oict>.o>oot-- 



>_i^f, o tp 00 M "O t^ eo»o'<*e^o» o>-« 
>«oeoo »o<oO'-'cOw rf«eo©cor- t^-< 

>0 -eO 0<M05^»^00 .0<M00 C<JOO 



If n n II II D II II n n II n n ii n o d d a h ii o ii n o a o o 



III: 



|4 
© " © 

2 © 2 

I S 5 



©-S 

•4J © 

a.s «- 

.s^ © 

© 

-2: : : 
6 



t s. «g i- III i' 



1 { 



ii 



[54] 



(French and English Compound Equivalents) 

I kHflgram per lte.ar meter j a^prn'dfp^elJTa^^d'""'- 

1,000 kilograms (1 ton) per meter 300 long ton per foot ; i short ton per foot. 

1 kilogram per kilometer 3.548 pounds per miile. 

1.000 kilograms (1 ton) per kilometer i ^' mtll''"^ ^°''^ ^^'^ °^^^' ^'^^^ ^^""^^ ^^""^ ^^^ 

1 kilogram per square millimeter J 1422.32 pounds per square inch ; .635 long ton 

( per square inch; .711 short ton per sq. in. 

1 kilogram per square centimeter 14.2232 pounds per square inch. 

1 kilogram per square decimeter 20.481 pounds per square foot. 

1 kilogram per square meter 1.843 pounds per square yard. 

1,000 kilograms (1 ton) per square meter 8229 long ton, .922 short ton, per square yard. 

1 kilogram per ton i 2.2«)^pounds per long ton; 2 pounds per short 

1 kilogram per ton per kilometer 3.6042 pounds per long ton per mile. 

1 liter of water at 4° C. per ton per kilometer. .4325 U. S. gal. at 62° F. per long ton per mile. 

1 gram per square millimeter 1.422 pounds per square inch. 

1 gram per square centimeter 01422 pound per square inch. 

1 kilogram per cubic meter j .1686 pound per cubic yard. 

I .0624 pound per cubic foot. 

1.000 kUograms (1 ton) per cubic meter ] ;« fcrcS?ic°yaS."'''°'- 

1 cubic meter per kilogram 16.019 cubic feet per pound. 

1 ^,,u'^ ^^4-^^ rv^- ♦^^ J 1-329 cubic yards per long ton. 

1 cubic meter per ton -j 35 332 cubic feet per long ton. 

1 cubic meter per kilometer 2.105 cubic yards per mile. 

1 cubic meter per linear meter 1.196 cubic yards per linear yard. 

1 cubic meter per square meter 3.281 cubic feet per square foot. 

1 ^.,k;« x^«+^^ r^«.. v^^t^ya i '405 cublc meter per acre. 

1 cubic meter per hectare -j 539 cubic yard per acre. 

1 kilogrammeter 7.233 foot-pounds. 

1 kilogrammeter ] = O^JO^f^ foot-ton (long) = .00362 foot-ton 

1 ton-meter 3 foot-tons (long); 3.36 (short). 

1 cheval vapeur.or cheval (75kXm per second). .9863 horse-power. 

1 kilogram per cheval 2.235- pounds per horse-power. 

1 square meter per cheval. . . ; 10.913 square feet per horse-power. 

1 cubic meter per cheval 35.806 cubic feet per horse-power. 

1 calorie, or French unit of heat 3.968 British heat-units. 

French mechanical equivalent of heat (423.55k ^ g^gg 5 foot-pounds. 

1 calorie per square meter 369 heat-unit per square foot. 

1 calorie per kilogram 1.800 heat-units per pound. 

ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 

1 pound per linear foot 1.488 kilograms per linear meter. 

1 pound per yard 496 kilogram per meter. 

1 long ton per foot 33.32 kilograms (3^ tons approx.) per meter. 

1 long ton per yard 1111 kilograms ( l^^ tons approx.) per meter. 

1 pound per mile 2818 kilogram per kilometer. 

1 long ton per mile 6313 ton per kilometer. 

1 pound per long ton. 4464 kilogram per ton. 

1 pound per long ton per mile 2774 kilogram per ton per kilometer. 

1.0703077 kilogram per square centimeter. 
.7031 gram per square millimeter. 
5.170 centimeters of mercury at 0° C. 
i ai/niv^oijuici c yi^-t.i ^.uunuo j^ci cmu'<"c .i^v^iiy. .. 1.0335 kilogfams per square centimeter. 

1,000 pounds per square inch 703077 kilogram per square millimeter. 

2,000 pounds per square inch 1.406154 kilograms per square millimetefo 

1 long ton per square inch 1.575 kilograms per .square millimeter. 

1 pound per square foot 4.883 kilograms per square meter 

1,000 pounds per square foot 4882.517 kilograms per square meter. 

1 ton per square foot 10.936 tons per square meter. 

1,000 pounds per square yard.. '. 542.500 kilograms per square meter. 

1 ton per square yard 1.215 tons per square meter. 

1 pound per cubic yard .5933 kilogram per cubic meter. 

1 pound per cubic foot. 16.020 kilograms per cubic meter. 

1 ton per cubic yard. . ." 1.329 tons per cubic meter. 

1 cubic yard per pound 1.6855 cubic meters per kilogram. 

1 cubic yard per ton 7525 cubic meter per ton. 

1 cubic yard per mile 4750 cubic meter per kilometer. 

1 cubic yard per linear yard 836 cubic meter per linear meter. 

1 cubic foot per square foot 3048 cubic meter per square metefo 

^ cubic meter per acre 2.471 cubic meters per hectare. 

% cubic yard per acre 1.889 cubic meters per hectare. 

1 foot-pound. , 1382 kilogrammeter. 

[55] 



(French and English Compound Equivalents) 



1 foot-ton (long) 3097 ton-meter. 

1 horse-power 1.0139 cheval. 

1 pound per horse-power 447 kilogram per chevL 

1 square foot per horse-power 0916 square meter per cheval. 

1 cubic foot per horse-power , .0279 cubic meter per cheval. 

1 British unit of heat, or heat-unit 252 calorie. 

British mechanical equivalent of one heat- \ ,«/. 7 ninirmmmpfpra 

unit (772 foot-p^ounds) J ^"^'^ kUogrammeters. 

1 British heat-unit per square foot 2.713 calories per square meter. 

1 British heat-unit per pound S calorie per kilogram. 

— D. K. Clark, Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. 



To Reduce Parts by Volume, or Meas- 
ure TO Parts by Weight. — Multiply the 
parts by volume, or measure, by the specific 
gravity of the different substances: the re- 
sult wxll be parts by weight. 



MENSURATION. 

SURFACES. 

Parallelogram. — Area equals base mul- 
tiplied by height. 

Triangle. — Base and height given. Mul- 
tiply base by height and divide by two. 

When three sides are given. From the half 
sum of the three sides subtract each side sep- 
arately; multiply the half sum and the three 
remainders together. The area is the square 
root of the product thus obtained. 

Trapezium (a figure with two sides parallel 
and two sides not parallel). — To find the area 
multiply the sum of the two parallel sides by 
the distance between them and divide by two. 

Square or Rhombus (an oblique paral- 
lelogram with four equal sides). — Area equals 
halithe product of the diagonals. 

Irregular Polygon. — The area may be 
found by dividing it into a series of triangles 
and trapeziums, and finding the sum of the 
areas thus obtained. 

Regular Polygon. — Area equals number 
of sides multiplied by length of one side and 
by the radius of the inscribed circle divided 
by two. 

Circle. — Circumference equals diameter 
multiplied by 3.1416, or approximately by 3^, 
Area equals diameter squared multiplied by 
.7854. 

Sector of Circle. — Multiply the length of 
the arc by the radius and divide by two. 

Segment of Circle. — Find the area of the 
sector having the same arc. Also find area of 
triangle formed by the radial sides and the 
chord. The area equals the sum or differ- 
ence of these according as the segment is 
greater or less than a semicircle. 

Annulus. — Multiply the sum of the diame- 
ters by theirdifference and by .7854. 
■ Square Equal to a Circle.— Side of 
square equals diameter multiplied by .8862. 

Inscribed Square. — Side of square equals 
diameter multiplied by .7071. 

Ellipse. — Area equals the product' of the 
two axes by .7854. 

solids. 

Cube, — Surface equals length of one edge 
squared and multiplied by six. Contents 
equals length of one edge cubed. 

Cylinders and Prisms.— Surface equals 

perimeter of one end multiplied by height plus 

. twice the area of one end. Contents equals 

area of ba|e multliplied by height. This last 

also applies to oblique cylinders and prisms. 



Cone or Pyramid. — Surface equals cir- 
cumference of base multiplied by slant height 
divided by two, plus the area of the base. 
Contents equals area of base multiplied by 
one-third perpendicular height. This last 
applies whether the cones and pyramids be 
right or oblique. 

Frustum of Cone or Pyramid. — Con- 
tents: To the sum of the area of the two ends" 
add the square root of their product and 
multiply the quantity thus obtained by one- 
third the perpendicular height. 

Sphere. — Area equals square of diameter 
multiplied by 3,1416 or 3|; i.e., it is equal to 
four times the area of one of its great circles, 
or to the convex surface of its circumscribing 
cylinder. Surfaces of spheres vary as the 
squares of their diameters. Contents equal 
the cube of the diameter multiplied by .5236, 
i.e., equals area of surface multiplied by diam- 
eter and divided by six. Contents of spheres 
vary as the cubes of the diameter. f 

Segment of Sphere. — Contents: From 
three times the diameter of the sphere sub- 
tract twice the height of the segment, multi- 
ply the difference by the square of the height 
and by .5236; or, another rule: Add the 
square of the height to three times the square 
of the radius of the base and multiply the 
sum by the height and by .5236. 

Zone of Sphere. — To the sum of the 
squares of the radii of the two ends add one- 
third the square of the height, multiply the 
sum by the height and by 1,5708. 

Cone, Sphere, and Cylinder. — The con- 
tents of a cone, sphere, and cylinder of same 
diameter and height are in the ratio of 1 to 2 
to 3. — Practical Engineer's Electrical Pocket 
Book and Diary. 

CIRCULAR MEASURE. 

Diameter of a Circle X 3.1416 gives Circum- 
ference. 

. Diameter Squared X .7854 gives Area of 
Circle. 

Diameter Squared X 3.1416 gives Surface of 
-Sphere. 

Diameter Cubed X .5236 gives Solidity of 
Sphere. 

One Degree of Circumference X 57.3 gives 
Radius, 

Diameter of Cylinder X 3,1416, and product 
by its length, gives the Surface. ' 

Diameter Squared X .7854, and product by 
the length, gives Solid Contents. 

A Circular Acre is 225.504 feet, a Circular 
Rood 117,752 feet, in diameter. The Circum- 
ference of the globe is about 24,855 miles, and 
the Diameter about 7,900 mUes.—Whittaker'a 
Almanac. 



[56] 



(ximej 



(Decimal Equivalents) 



ANGULAR MEASURE. 
There is perfect unanimity as to the stand- 
ard angle (i.e., the right angle) and practi- 
cal unanimity as to its subdivision, for the 
subdivision into grades, etc., once favored by 
the French, is now abandoned. 
1 minute of angle or arc = 60 seconds. 
1 degree " " ** " =60 minutes. 
90 degrees *' '* *•*♦=! right angle or 
i of circum- 
ference. 
' =arc same length as 

radius. 

' - 57.295779513082*. 

= 0.017453292520. 

= 0.000290888209. 

= 0.015707963268. 



Radian 



Length of arc of 1*" 

Length of arc of 1' 

" " 1' 



TIME. 
The unit of time measurement is the same 
among all nations. Practically it is He^oo of 
the mean solar day, but really it is a perfectly 
Arbitrary unit, as the length of the mean solar 
day is not constant for any two periods of 
time. There is no constant natural unit of. 
time. 

= 60 seconds. 
= 60 minutes, 3600 sec- 
onds. 
= 24 hours, 1440 minutes, 

86,400 seconds. 
= 86164.1 seconds.. 
= 27.321661 mean solar 

days (average). 

= 29.530589 mean solar 

days (average). 

I anomalistic ii*onth = 27.544600 mean solar 

days (average). 



1 minute 
1 hour 

1 day 

1 sidereal day 
1 sidereal month 

1 lunar month 



1 tropical month —27.321582 mean solar 

days (average). 
1 nodical month =27.212222 mean solar 

days (average). 
Mean solar year =365 d. 5 h. 48 m. 46.045 
8. with annual varia- 
tion of 0.00539. 
The change in the length of the mean side- 
real day, i.e., of the time of the earth's rota- 
tion upon its axis, amounts to 0.01252 s. in 
2400 mean solar years. 

—Physical Tables. 

TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 
OF FRACTIONS OF AN INCH, 




. i = -25 

41 = -265625 

X = -28125 

II = -296875 

S = *3125 

11 = -328125 



34375 

359375 

•375 

•390625 

•40625 

-421875 

•4375 

•453125 

•46875 

•484375 

•50 

•515625 

•53125 

•546875 

•5625 

•578125 

•69375 

•609475 

•625 

•640625 

•65625 



SI =- -671875 
H = -6875 
II = -703125 
§^ = -71875 
il = -734375 
I = -75 
Jl = -765625 
§§ = -78125 
U = -796875 

gf = -828125 

§1 = -84376 

If = -859375 

I = -876 

s| = -890625 

11 = -90625 

-| = -921875 

I = -9376 

! = -9.53125 

,1 = -96875 

|5 = -984375 






WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE BIBLE. 



A gerah 

10 gerahs = 1 bekah. 

2 bekahs = 1 shekel. 

60 shekels = 1 maneh. 



Avoirdupois 
Lbs. Oz. Drs 



2 



0.439 = 

4.39 = 

8.78 = 

14.628 = 



50 manehs = 1 talent 102 13 11.428 



Troy. 
Lbs. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 
12 
5 
10 
2 6 



125 



MEASURES. 

Long Measure. 

A digit, or finger (Jer. lii. 21) 

4 digits =1 palm (Exod. xxv. 25). 

3 palms = 1 span (Exod. xxviii. 16) 

2 spans = 1 cubit (Qen. vi. 15) , 

4 cubits = 1 fathom (Acts xxvii. 28). 

1.5 fathoms = 1 reed (Ezek. xl. 3, 5) 

13.3 reeds = 1 line (Ezek. xl. 3) 



Land Measure. Eng. miles. 

A cubit 

400 cubits = 1 furlong (Luke xxiv. 13) 

5 furlongs = 1 sabbath day's journey (John xi. 18; Acts i. 12) 

10 furlongs = l mile (Matt. v. 41) 1 

24 miles = 1 day's journey 33 

Liquid Measure. 

A caph 

1.3 caphs = 1 log (Lev. xiv. 10) 

4 logs = 1 cab 

3 cabs == 1 hin (Exod. xxx. 24) 

2 hins = 1 seah. . 

3 seahs = 1 bath, or ephah (1 Kings vii. 26; John ii. 6) 

10 ephahs = 1 kor, or homer (Isa. v. 10; Ezek. xiv. 14). ., , 



Ft. In. 

0.912 

3.648 

10.944 

1 9.888 
7 3.552 

10 11.328 

145 11.04 

Paces. Ft. 

1.824 



145 

727 
399 
76 



4.6 
3.0 
1.0 
4.0 



Gals. Pts. 
0.625 



0.833 
3.333 



4 

4.5 



75 5.2ft 



571 



(Weights and Measures of the Bible) 
Dry Measure. 



A gBchal .i » 

20 gachals==l cab (2 Kings vi. 25; Rev. vi, 6) : 

1.8 cabs = 1 omer (Exod. xvi. 36) 

3.3 omera = 1 eeah (Matt. xiii. 33) ::.... 1 

3 seahs = 1 ephah (Ezek. xlv. «11) 3 

5 ephahs = 1 letech (Hosea iii. 2) 16 

2 letechs = 1 kor, or homer (Num. xi. 32; Hos. iii. 2) 32 

N.B. — The above Table will explain many 
texts in the Bible. Take, for instance, Isa. v. 
10 r "Yea, ten acres of vineyard shall yield 
one bath, and the seed of an homer shall 
yield an ephah." This curse upon the covet- 
ous man was, that 10 acres of vines should 



Pecks. Gals. Pts. 



0.1416 

2.8333 

5.1 

1 

3 







produce only 7 gallons of wine, i.e., one acre 
should yield less that 3 quarts; and that 32 
pecks of seed should only bring a crop of 3 
pecks, or, in other words, that the harvest 
reaped should produce but one-tenth of the 
seed sown. 



TIME. 
The Natural Day was from sun-rise to sun-set. 
The Natural Night was from sun-set to sun-rise. 

The Civil Day was from sun-set one evening to sun-set the next; for, "the Evening and 
the Morning were the first day." 



NiGEtT (Ancient). 
First Watch (Lam. ii. 19) till midnight. 
Middle Watch (Judg. vii. 19) till 3 a.m. 
Morning Watch (Exod. xiv. 24) till 6 a.m. 

Night {New Testament). 
First Watch, evemng = 6 to 9 p.m. 
Second Watch, midnight = 9 to 12 p.m. 
Third Watch, cock-cnow = 12 to 3 a.m. 
Fourth Watch, morning = 3 to 6 a.m. 

JEWISH 
With its value in English and American money; 
Jewish. 



Day (Ancient). 
Morning till about 10 a.m. 
Heat of day till about 2 p.m. 
Cool of day till aboilt 6 p.m. 

Day (New Teatamenf).. 
Third hour = 6 to 9 a.m. 
Sixth hour = 9 to 12 midday. 
Ninth hour = 12 to 3 pm. 
Twelfth hour = 3 to 6 p.m. 

MONEY. 

the American dollar being taken as equal to is. 2d. 
English. American. 



A gerah (Exod. xxx. 13) , . 

10 gerahs =1 bekah (Exod. xxxviii. 26) 

2 bekahs =1 shekel (Exod. xxx. 13; Isa. vii. 

50 shekels = 1 maneh 

60 manehs = 1 kikkar (talent) 

A gold shekel. 

A kikkar of gold • • • 

N.B. — A shekel would probably purchase 
nearly ten times as much as the same nominal 
amount will now. Remember that one Ro- 
man penny (8id.) was a good day's wages for 
a laborer. 

The Hebrew maneh, according to 1 Kings 
X. 17, compared with 2 Chron. ix. 16, contained 
100 shekels; though according to one inter- 
pretation of Ezek. xlv. 12, it contained 60, 
but more probably 50. The passage reads 
thus: — "Twenty shekels, five and twenty 
shekels, fifteen shekels shall be your maneh." 
This is variously interpreted, (1) 20 + 254-15 



23). 



£ 


«. 


d. Dels. 


Cents. 


= 





1.36= 


2.73 


= 


1 


1.68= 


27.37 


= 


2 


3.37= 


64.74 


5 


14 


0.75= 27 


37.50 


= 342 


3 


9 -= 1,642 


50 


= 1 


16 


6=8 


76 


= 5.475 





=26.280 






= 60. (2) 20, 25, 15 are different coins in gold, 
silver, and copper, bearing the same name. 
It is well to remark the meaning of these 
names: Shekel = simply weight: Bekah = 
split, i.e., the shekel divided into two: Gerah 
= a grain, as in our weights, a grain and a 
barley-corn, the original standard weight: 
M&neh^ appointed, equivalent to, sterling, a 
specific sum : Kikkar = a round mass of metal, 
i.e., a weight or coin. Hebrew names of 
weights and coins are not found in the New 
Testament: mna in Luke xix. 13- is Greek, 
though possibly identical with the Hebrew 
maneh. 



ROxMAN MONEY. 
Roman. English. 

d. 

A "farthing," quadrans (Matt. v. 26) = nearly 0.125 

A "farthing.'' as = 4 quadrantes <^Matt. x. 29) = nearly 0.5 

A "penny," denarius = ].^ asses (Matt. xxii. 19)=nearly 8.50 

[The Roman sestertius = 2^ asses, is not named in the Bible.] 



American. 

Cents. 

0.25 



= 17 



N.B. — Here we learn that — 

Naaman's offering to Eli.sha of 6,000 pieces 
(shekels) of gold amounted to more than 
£10,000 = 48,000 rfoZtors. 

The Debtor (Matt, xviii. 24) who had been 
•forgiven 10,000 talents, i.e.. £3.000.000 = 14.- 
400,000 dollars, refused to- forgive his fel- 



low-servant 100 pence, i.e., £3 lOa. 10<f=17 
dollars. 

Judas sold our Lord for 30 pieces of silver, 
i.e.. £3 10«. 8d. = 16 dollars 96 cents, the legal 
value of a slave, if he were killed by a beast. 

Joseph was sold by his brethren for 20 
pieces, i.e. £2 7s. = 11 dollars 28 cents. 

—Oxford University Bible. 



[58] 



(Time and Watch on Board Ship) 



Watch. — Far purposes of discipline, and 
to divide the work fairly, the crew is mus- 
tered in two divisions: the Starboard (right 
side, looking forward) and the Port (left). 
The day commences at noon, and is thus 
divided: — 



Afternoon Watch 
First Dog 
Second Dog ' * 
First 
Middle 

Morning ' ' 
Forenoon * ' 



noon to 4 p.m. 
. 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. 
. 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. 



. 8 p.m. to midnight. 
. 12 p.m. to 4 a.m. 
. 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. 
. b a.m. to noon. 



This makes seven Watches, which enables 
the crew to keep them alternately, as the 
Watch which is on duty in the forenoon one 
day has the afternoon next day, and the men 
who have only four hours' rest one night have 
eight hours the next. This is the reason for 
having Dog Watches, which are made by di- 
viding the hours between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. 
into two Watches.. 

Time. — Time is kept by means of "Bells," 
although there is but one bell on the ship, and 
to strike the clapper property against the 
bell reqiiires some skill. 



First, two strokes of the clapper at the in- 
terval of a second, then an interval of two 
seconds; then two more strokes with a sec- 
ond's interval apart, then a rest of two sec- 
onds, thus: — 

Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; 
B. s8;B. s.; B. ss.; B. 

1 Bell is struck at 12.30, and again at 4.30, 
6.30, 8.30 p.m.; 12.30, 4.30, and 8.30 a.m. 

2 Bells at I (struck with an mterval of a 
secijnd between each — B. s, B.), the same 
again at 5, 7. and 9 p.m. ; i, 5. and 9 a.m. 

3 Bells at 1.30 (B. s, B. ss. B.), 5.30, 7-30, 
and 9.30 p.m.; 1.30, 5-30. ai^d 9.30 a.m. 

4 Bells at 2 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.), 6 and 10 
p.m.; 2, 6, and 10 a.m. 

5 Bells at 2.30 (B. s, B ss, B. s, B. ss, B.) 
and 10.30 p.m. ; 2.30, 6.30, and 10.30 a.m. 

6 Bells at 3 (B. s, B, ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.) 
and li p.m.; 3, 7. and 11 a.m. 

7 Bells at 3.30 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, 
B. ss, B.) and 11.30 p.m.; 3.30, 7.30, and 
11,30 a.m. 

8 Bells (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ssf B. s, B. ss, 
B. s, B.) every 4 hours, at noon, at 4 p.fai., 
8 p.m., midnight, 4 a.m., and 8 a.m. 

'^Whittaker' s Almanac 



STONES: SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND VOLUME. 



Stones. 


Specific. 
Gravity. 


Weight of 

one Cubic 

Foot. 


Cubic 

Feet per 

Ton. 


Alabaster, calcareous. ... , , 


Water = 1. 

2.76 

2.31 

4.45 
2.45-3.00 

2.78 

3.50 

2.59 

2.60 

2.69 
2.50-2.74 

2.20 

2.72 
1.86-2.53 

2.80 
2.71 
2.72 
2.67 
2.52 
2.65 
2.93 
1.89-2.60 

5.21 

5.09 

3.92 

3.83 
2.61-2.71 
2.04-2.70 

2.81 
2.60-2.85 

2.70 


Poimds. 

172.1 

144.0 

277.5 

152.8-187.1 

155 

*'i64" 

162.1 

168 

156-171 

137.2 

169.7 
116-158 

174.6 
169.0 
169.6 
166.5 
157.1 
165.2 
183 
118-16? 

327.4 

317.6 

244.6 

238.8 

162.8-169 

127-168 

175.2 

162.1-177.7 

168.4 


Cubic Ft. 
13.0 




15'. 6 


Barytes 


8.07 


Basalt. 

Chalk, air-dried , 


14.7-12.0 
14.5 








13.7 


Felsnar 


13.8 


Gneiss. . . * 


13.3 


Granite . , . . 


14.4-13.1 




16.3 




13.2 


Limestone , 


19.3-14.2 


Marble: 

African. ........ 


12.8 


British. 


13.3 
13.2. 


Egyptian green. 


13.5 




14.3 


French. 


13.6 


Mica 


12 2 




19.0-13.8 


Ores: 


6.84 


Magnetic iron ore 


7.05 


Brown iron ore. . . . 


9 16 




9.38 


Quartz ; ... 


13 8-13.3 


Sandstone. 


17.6-13.3 




12.8 


Slate. 


13 8-12.6 


Talc, steatite. 


13.3 



[59] 



(Mineral Substances, Various: Specific Gravity, Weight, and Volume) 



Substances. 



Specific 
Gravity. 


Weight of 

One Cubic 

Foot. 


Cubic 

Feet per 

Ton 


Water = 1. 


Poimds. 


Cubic Ft. 


1.72 


107.2 


20.9 


1.80 


112 


20.0 


1.90-2.40 


124.7-135.3 


18.1-16.0 


1.7&-1.84 


110 


20.4-18 


.99 


61.7 


36.3 


1.92 


119,7 


18.7 


1.37-1.59 


85.4-99.1 


26.2-22.6 


1.20-1.31 


74.8-81.7 


30-28.1 




93-137 


1&-24 


1.15-1.29 


72-80 


31.1-28 


1.32-1.48 


82-92 


27.a-24.3 


1.06-1.22 


66-76 


34.0-29.6 


1.44-1.6Q 


90-100 


24.8-22.4 


2.90 


187.0 


12.0 


2.70 


168.4 


13.3 


2.70 


168.4 


13,2 


2.53 


158.0 


14.2 


2.50 


155.9 


14.4 


1.75-1.84 


109.1-114.7 


20.5-19.6 


.922 . 


57.5 


39 


1.60-1.90 


99.8-118.5 


22.4-18.9 


2.37 


147.5 


15.2 


2.70 


168.5 


11.4 


2.42 


151.9 


14.8 


2.34 


145.6 


15.4 


2.61 


162.5 


13.2 


2.21 


138 


16.2 


2.47 


154 


14.6 


1.65 


103 


21.7 


1.28-1.93 


80-110 


28.0-20.4 


1.93-2.09 


110-130 


20.4-17.2 


1.67-1.92 


104-120 


21.5-18.7 


1.77 


110.4 


20.3 


1.87-2.47 


98 


22.9 


1.25-1.51 


78-94 


28.7-23.8 


2.10 


131 


17.1 


1.44-1.87 


90-117 


24.9-19.1 


1.89-2.07 


118-129 


19-17.4 


1;92 


119.7 


18.7 


2.10-2.26 


131-140.7 


■17.1-15.9 


2.00 


124.7 


18.0 


2.00 


124.7 


18.G.- 



Alum 

Ballast (brick rubbish and gravel) 

Brick. 

Brickwork 

Camphor 

Clay 

Coal: 

Anthracite 

Bituminoua. . 

Earth, argillaceous: 

Dry, loose 

Dry, shaken 

Moist, loose 

Packed. 

Glass: 

Flint 

Green 

Plate 

Thick flooiing 

Crown. . 

Gunpowder, heaped 

Ice, melting 

Marl 

Masonry: 

Ashlar granite 

** Limestone, hard 

** " semi-hard. . . 

** " soft 

* • Sandstone , 

Rubble, dry, 

'* mortar 

Mortar, hardened 

Mud: 

Dry, close 

Wet, moderately pressed 

Wet, fluid. 

Phosphorus 

Plaster 

Portland cement, . . ' 

Potash. / 

Sand ; 

•' saturated with water 

Salt, common. . 

' • rock •....;.... 

Sulphtir 

Tiles 



L60J 



(Fuels, Etc.: SpeciSc Gravity, Weight, and Bulk) 



Fuels. 



Coals. 

Anthracite, American. 

Bituminous coal, American 

Coke. 

Coke, generally 

American 

Graphite 

Lignite and Asphalt. 

Perfect lignite 

Imperfect lignite 

Bituminous lignite 

Asphalt 

Wood Charcoal. 
As made, heaped. 

Oak and beech 

Birch 

Pine 

Average 

Gunpowder, loose 

' • shaken 

" solid 



Specific 
Gravity. 


Weight of One 
Cubic Foot. 


Volume of 
One Ton, 


SoUd. 


Heaped. 


Heaped. 


Water = 1. 

1.30-1.84 

127 


Lbs. 
93.5 
84.0 


Lbs. 
54.0 
50.0- 


Cub. Ft. 


' i'ss' ■ 


40-50 
■ V45.3 ' 


30.0 
32.1 


70-80 
69.8 


1.29 
1.15 
1.18 
1.06 








Heaped. 

.24-.25 
.22-.23 
.2a-.21 




15-15.6 
13.7-14.3 
12.5-13.1 




.225 

.90 

1.00 

1.55-1.80 




14 





WOODS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT. 



Wood. 



Ash 

' ' with 20 per cent, moistiirfe. 

Apple tree , 

Bamboo , 



Beech. 



with 20 per cent, moisture, 
cut one year 



Birch. 

Boxwood 

Cedar of Lebanon. 
Cork 



Cypress,, cut one year. 

Ebony , . . . . 

Elder pith 

Elm 



* ' Green 

' * with 20 per cent, moisture 

Fir, Norway Pine. ! , 

' * Spruce. 

' ' Larch 

" White Pine, Scotch 

" ' * " " with 20 per cent, moisture. 

* * Yellow Pine, American . » . . v 

* * * * * * English ■ 

Lignum- Vitae 

Mahogany, Cuba. 



Hondtiras. 



Maple. 

* * 20 per cent, moisture. . , 

Mulberry •...-..- 

Oak, American. ■, 

Poplar 

* • White 

* * 20 per cent, moisture. . 

Rock-Elm 

Sycamore 

Walnut...: 

»WUow. , 



Specific 
Gravity. 



Water =1 

.84 

.70. 

.79 
.31-40 
.75-.85 

.82 

.66 
.72-.74 

1.04 
.49-.57 

.24 

.66 

1.13 

.076 
.55-.67 

.76 

.72 

.74 
.48-70 
.50-.64 

.53 

.49 

.46 

.66 
.65-1.33 
.56-1.06 
^.56-1.06 
.65-.73 

.67 

.89 

.87 

.39 
.32-,5l 

.48 

.80 

.69 

.58 

.49 



Weight of 

One Cubic 

Foot. 



Poimds. 

52.4 

43.7 

45.5 
19.5-24.9 
46.8-50.3 

51.1 

41.2 
44.9-46.1 

64.8 
30.6-35.5 

15.0 

41.2 

70.5 

4.74 

34.3 

47.5 

44.9 

46.1 
29.9-43.7 
31.2-39.9 

34.3 

30.6 

28.7 

41.2 
40.&-82.9 

34.9 

34.9 

40.5 

41.8 

55.5 

54.3 

24.3 
20.0-31.& 

29.9 

60.0 

36.8 

42.4 

30.6 



[6^ 



(Animal Substances: Specific Gravity and Weight) 



Substance. 



Pearls 

Coral 

Ivory 

Bone. . . , 

Wool. ; 

Tendon 

Cartilage 

Human Body. •• . . • 

Nerve 

Beeswax.. • 

Lard. ; ....;.. 

Spermaceti 

White of Whalebone. . 

Butter 

Pork Fat 

Tallow 

Beef Fat ...., 

Mutton Fat 

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES 

Cotton 

Flax 

Starch 

Sugar. . 

Gutta-percha ■ 

India-rubber 



Grain.: 

Wheat, California 

Peas. . ( » 

Indian Corn. . . .• . 



Specific 
Gravity. 



1.95 

1.79 

1.53 

1.005 

.97 

93 

Weight of 

One Cu. Ft. 

loosely 

filled. 

49 

50 

43^ 



OneCu.Ft. 

Pounds. 

169.6 

167.7 

114-119.7 

112.2-124.7 

100.4 

69.8 

68.0 

66.7 

64.9 

59.9 

59.3 

5r 8 

58.7 
58.7 
58.7 
57.6 
57.5 
57.4 



121.6 
111.6 
95.4 



60.5 
58.0 



Weight of 

OneCu.Ft. 

closely 

filled. 

63 

54 

47 



LIQUIDS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT. 




Liquids at 32*' F. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Weight of 

One Cubic 

Foot. 


Weight 

of One 

Br. Gallon. 


Mercurjr _. 

Q'jjjpljuric Acid maximum concentration 


Water = 1. 
13.596 
1.84 
1.55 
1.53 
1.22 
1.08 
1.03 
1.026 

':§r 

.94 

.92 

.92 

.915 

.87 
1.00 

.88 

.85 
1.11 
1.08 

.89 

.89 

.87 

.74 

.92 

.79 

.85 

.80 


Pounds. 
848.7 
114.9 
96.8 
96.5 
76.2 
67.4 
64.3 
64.05 
62.425 
62.0 
58.7 
57.4 
57.4 
57.1 
54.3 
62.4 
54.9 
53.1 
69.3 
67.4 
55.6 
55.6 
54.3 
44.9 
57.4 
49.3 
53.1 
49.9 


Pounds. 

136.0 

18 4 


Nitrous Acid.' .....;.... 


15.5 




15.3 




12.2 




10.8 


Milk ,.,,>,...., 


10.3 


Sea W^ater. ordinary. .....>.............;.... 


10.3 


Pure Water,: at 39" F. ; 

Wine, Red. ... , ; 

Oil. Linseed ■ ' . . i y . ..... ...... 


10.0112 
9.9 
9.4 




9.2 


" Whale . 


9.2 


•• Olive 


9.15 


" Turpentine . - . . 


8.7 


Tar. 


10.0 


Petroleum. 


8.8 


Naphtha 


8.6 


Ether, Nitric. 


11.1 




10.8 


•• Nitrous ; 


8.9 


*• Acetic. ; 

• • Hydrochloric . . . . . . ; . . . . ■ 


8.9 
8.7 




7.2 


Alcohol, proof spirit 

'\ pure. . 


9.2 
7.9 

8.5 


; Proof Spirit 


8.0 



[62] 



(Gases and Vapors: Specific Gravity, Weight, and Volume) 



Gases at 32** F., and under one 
Atmosphere of Pressure. 



Mercury. 

Chlorofornn 

Turpentine 

Acetic Ether. . ." . 

Benzine 

Sulphuric Ether. 

Chlorine 

Sulphurous Acid. 

Alcohol ... . 

.Carbonic Acid . . , 

Oxygen 

Air 



Nitrogen 

Carbonic Oxide , 

defiant Gas . . 

Ammohiacal Gas 

Light Carbureted Hydrogen 

Coal Gas 

Hydrogen. . 



Specific 
Gravity. 



Air = l. 

6.9740 

5.3000 

4.6978 

3.0400 

2.6943 

2.5860 

2.4400 

2.2470 

1.6130 

1.5290 

1.1056 

1.0000 

.9701 

.9674 

.9847 

.5894 

.5527 

.4381 

.0692 



Weight of One 
Cubic Foot. 



Pounds. 
.563 
.428 
.378 
.245 
.217 
.209 
.197 
.1814 
.1302 
.12344 
.089253 
.080728 
.078596 
.0781 
.0795 
.04758 
.04462 
.03536 
.005592 



Ounces. 
9.008 
6.846 
6.042 
3.927 
3.480 
3.340 
3.152 
2.902 
2.083 
1.975 
1.428 
1.29165 
1.258 
1.250 
1.272 
7.613 
.7139 
.5658 
.0895 



Volume of 

One Pound 

Weight. 



Cub. Ft. 

1.776 

2.337 

2.637 

4.075 

4.598 

4;790 

5.077 

5.513 

7.679 

8.101 

11.205 

12.387 

12.723 

12.804 

12.580 

21.017 

22.412 

28.279 

178.83 



WEIGHT AND 


VOLUME 
(Tod.) 


OF BODIES. 




Bodies, 


Weight of One 
Cubic Foot. 


Weight of 

One Cubic 

Inch. 


Cubic 
Inches 
in One 
Pound. 


M~ETALS. 

Antimony, cast. ... 


Oz. 

6,702 

7,190 

7,207 

7,291 

7,299 

7,471 

7,788 

7,811 

7,816 

7.833 

7,965 

8,279 

8,395 

8,544 

8,666 

8,784 

8,788 

3,878 

8,915 

9,822 

10,510 

10,534 

10,744 

11,000 

11,352 

11,800 

13,568 

14,000 

15,709 

17,647 

19,25g 

19,316 

19,500 

20,336 

21,041 

22,069 

23,000 


Lb. 

418.8750 

449.3750 

450.4375 

455.6875 

456.1875 

466.9375 

486.7500 

488.1875 

488.5000 

489.5625 

497.8125 

517.4375 

524.6875 

534.0000 

541.6250 

549.0000 

549.2500 

554.8750 

557.1875 

613.8750 

656.8750 

658.3750 

671.5000 

687.5000 

709.5000 

737.5000 

848.0000 

875.0000 

981.8125 

1,102.9375 

1,203.6250 

1,210.0625 

1.218.7500 

1,271.0000 

1,315.0625 

1,379,3125 

1,437.5000 


Oj!. 

3.8748 

4.1608 

4.1707 

4.2193 

4.2239 

4.3234 

4.5069 

4.5202 

4.5231 

4.5329 

4.6093 

4.7910 

4.8582 

4.9444 

5.0150 

5.0833 

5.0856 . 

5.1377 

5.1591 

5.0840 

6.0821 

6.0960 

6.2175 

6.3657 

6.3694 

6.8287 

7.8518 

8.1018 

9.0908 
10.2123 
11.1446 
11.2042 
11.2847 
11.7685 
12.1765 
12.7714 
13.3101 


Cub. In. 

3.8866 




3.8431 


Iron, cast 

Tin, cast 


3.8364 
3.7920 


" hardened . 


3.7878 


Pewter ; . •. 


3.7007 
3.5500 


Cobalt, cast ' 


3.5396 


Steel, hard " 


3.5373 




3.5296 


Iron, hammered . ....... 


3.4792 
3.3395 


Brass, cast. .... 


3.2933 


' ' wire . 


3.2359 




3.1903 


Gun-metal. . . ... 


3.1476 




3.1461 


'* wire 


3.1140 


* ' coin. ... 


3.0959 




2.8149 


Silver, hammered 


2.6306 


' ' coin. 


2.6246 


' ' pure, cast 


2.5733 


Rhodium. . .... 


2.5134 




2.4355 


Palladium 


2.5134 


Mercury (quicksilver) common. ... 


2.0377 




1.9748 


Gold, trinket 


1.7600 




1.6124 


*' niirp rnst. ' 


1.4356 




1.4280 




1.4178 


** hammered 


1.3595 


* * wire. . . . .... 


1.3140 


' ' laminated . 


1.2528 


Iridium, hammered. 


1.2021 



-Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book, 



[63] 



(Specific Gravity) 



Tables showing a comparison of the degrees of Baum^, Cartier, and Beck's Areometers, with 
specific gravity degrees. 



For Liquids Lighter than Water. 



Degrees of 
Baum^, 


Baum^. 


Cartier. 


Beck. 


Cartier, 








Beck. 


Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 









1.0000 


1 






0.9941 


2 






0.9883 


3 






9826 


4 






0.9770 


5 






0.9714 


6 






0.9659 


7 






. 9604 


8 






0.9550 


9 






0.9497 


10 


1.000 
0.993 




0.9444 


11 


1.000 


0.9392 


12 


0.986 


0.992 


0.9340 


13 


0.979 


0.985 


0.9289 


14 


0.973 


0.977 


0.9239 


15 


0.967 


0.969 


0.9189 


16 


0.960 


0.962 


0.9139 


17 


0.954 


0.955 


0.9090 


18 


0.948 


0.948 


0.9042 


19 


0.942 


0.941 


0.8994 


20 


0.935 


0.934 


0.8947 


21 


0.929 


0.927 


0.8900 


22 


0.924 


0.920 


0.8854 


23 


0.918 


0.914 


0.8808 


24 


0.912 


0.908 


0.8762 


25 


0.906 


0.901 


0.8717 


26 


0.901 


0.895 


0.8673 


27 


0.895 


0.889 


0.8629 


28 


0.889 


0.883 


0.8585 


29 


0.884 


0.877 


0.8542 


80 


0.879 


0.871 


0.8500 


31 


0.873 


0.865 


0.8457 


32 


0.868 


0.859 


.0.8415 


33 


0.863 


0.853 


0.8374 


34 


0.858 


0.848 


0.8333 


35 


0.853 


0.842 


0.8292 


36. 


0.848 


0.837 


T).8252 


37 


0.843 


0.831 


0.8212 


38 


0.838 


a. 826 


0.8173 


39 


0.833 


0.820 


0.8133 


40 


0.829 


0.815 


0.8095 


41 


0.824 


0.810 


0.8061 


42 


0.819 


0.805 


0.8018 


43 


0.815 


0.800 


0.7981 


44 


0.810 
0.806 
0.801 
0.797 
0.792 
0:788 
0.784 
0.781 
0.776 
0.771 
0.769 
0.763 
0.759 
0.755 
0.751 
0.748 
0.744 
0.740 
0.736 




0.7944 


45 




0.7907 


46 




0.7871 


47 




0.7834 


48 




0.7799 


49 




0.7763 


50 




0.7727 


51 




0.7692 


52 




0.7658 


53 




0.7623 


54 




0.7589 


55 




0.7556 


56 




0.7522 


57 




0.7489 


58 




0.7456 


59 




0.7423 


60 




0.7391 


61 




0.7359 


62 




0.7328 



For Liquids Heavier than Water. 



Degrees of 


Batim^. 


Beck. 


Baum^, 
Beck. 






Sp. Gr. 


Sp. Gr. 





1.000 


1.0000 


1 


1.007 


1.0059 


2 


1.014 


1.0119 


3 


1.020 


1.0180 


4 


1.028 


1.0241 


5 


1.034 


1.0303 


6 


1.041 


1.0366 


7 


1.049 


1.0429 


8 


1.057 


1.0494 


9 


1.064 


1.0559 


10 


1.072 


1.0625 


11 


1.080 


1.0692 


12 


1.088 


1.0759 


13 


1.096 


1.0828 


14 


1.104 


1.0897 


15 


1.113 


1.0968 


16 


1.121 


1.1039 


17 


1 130 


1.1111 


18 


1.138 


1.1184 


19 


1.147 


1.1258 


20 


1.157 


1 1333 


21 


1.166 


1.1409 


22 


1.176 


1.1486 


23 


1.185 


1.1565 


24 


1.195 


1.1644 


25 


1.205 


1.1724 


26 


1.215 


1.1806 


27 


1.225 


1.1888 


28 


1.235 


1.1972 


29 


1.245 


1.2057 


30 


1.256 


1.2143 


31 


1.267 


1.2230 


32 


1.278 


1.2319 


33 


1.289 


1.2409 


34 


1.300 


1.2500 


35 


1.312 


1.2593 


36 


1.324 


1.2680 


37 


1.337 


1.2782 


38 


1.349 


1.2879 


39 


1.361 


1.2977 


40 


1.375 


1.3077 


41 


1.388 


1.3178 


42 


1.401 


1.3281 


43 


1.414 


1.3386 


44 


1.428 


1.3492 


45 


1.442 


1.3600 


46 


1.456 


1.3710 


47 


1.470 


1.3821 


48 


1.485 


1.3934 


49 


1.500 


1.4050 


50 


1.515 


1.4167 


51 


1.531 


1.4286 


52 


1.546 


1.4407 


53 


1.562 


1.4530 


54 


1.578 


1.4655 


55 


1.596 


1.4783 


56 


1.615 


1.4912 


57 


1.634 


1.5044 


58 


1.653 


1.5179 


59 


1.671 


1.5315 


60 


1.690 


1.5454 


61 


1.709 


1.5596 


62 


1.729 


1.5741 


63 


1.750 


1.5888 


64 


1.771 


1.6038 



[64] 



(Board Measure) 



(Cord Measure) 



UNITS OF LOG MEASURE. 

In the United States and Canada logs are 
most commonly measured in board feet. 
Firewood and wood cut into short bolts, such 
as small pulpwood, excelsior wood, etc., are 
usually measured in cords. In the Adiron- 
dack Mountains the 19-inch standar !, or, as 
it is often called, "the market," is a common 
unit, of log measure. In some localities a log 
22 inches in diameter at the small end and 13 
feet long is used as a standard log and ts the 
unit for buying and selling timber. In other 
Bections. standards are used which are based 
on logs i2 feet long and respectively 21, 22, and 
24 inches in diameter at the small end inside 
the bark. 

In some cases logs are measured m cubic 
feet. This is common with long spar tim- 
ber and with long logs to be cut or hewn 
square. In many localities timber is sold by 
the log or tree, and in some sections standing 
timber is sold for a specified amount per acre 
or other unit of land measure. Piles and 
mine props are usually sold by the piece or by 
the linear foot. Logs are occasionally sold 
by the ton. 

BOARD MEASURE. 

The unit of board measure is the board 
foot, which is the contents of a board I foot 
square and 1 inch thick. The number of 
board feet which can be sawed from logs of 
different diameters and lengths is shown in 
log rules. 

Logs are usually measured at the small 
end inside the bark, because the removal of 
the slabs reduces the logs to the dimensions 
of the small end. This is the custom in 
measuring short logs by all the rules which 
are used, except in certain cases. Some of the 
rules, for example the Doyle and the Par- 
tridge rules, were intended by their origina- 
tors to be used for an average diameter, but 
most persons who use them take the diameter 
at the small end, except in case pf long tim- 
ber. In measuring long logs which are to be 
cut into short logs before being sawed into 
boards, the diameter is usually not taken at 
the small end alone. Thus in using the 
Maine Rule, long logs are scaled as two logs. 
The diameter at the small end inside the bark 
IS measured and is taken as the diameter of 
the uppermost log. The diameter at the 
small end of the lower log is estimated by 
the log-sealer. Another method of measur- 
ing long logs, often used with the Doyle Rule, 
is to take the diameters at both ends inside 
the bark, average them, and use this average 
as the diameter of the log. Still another 
method in use is to take the diameter inside 
the bark, one-third the distance from the 
small end of the log. 

Logs are usually cut from 2 to 6 inches 
longer than the standard lengths of boards, 
to allow for bruising in handling. This addi- 
tional length is disregarded in scaling. 

Log rules give the number of board feet in 
logs which are straight and sound. If logs 
are unsound or otherwise defective, a certain 
allowance must be made by the scaler. The 
determination of the amount in board feet 
which should be deducted for unsoundness or 
defects in a given log requires great skill on 
the part of the scaler, and, as it is a matter of 
judgment in each case, no definite directions 
can be given. 



CORD MEASURE. 

Firewood, small pulpwood, and material 
cut into short sticks for excelsior, etc., is usu- 
ally measured by the cord. A cord is 128 
cubic feet of stacked wood. The wood is 
usually cut into 4-foot lengths, in which case 
a cord is a stack 4 feet high and 8 feet long. 
Sometimes, however, pulpwood is cut 5 feet 
long, and a stack of it 4 feet high and 8 feet 
long is considered 1 cord. In this case the 
cord contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. 
In localities where firewood is cut in 5-foot 
lengths a cord makes a stack 4 feet high and 
6^- feet long, and contains 130 cubic feet of 
stacked wood. Where it is desirable to use 
shorter lengths for special purposes, the 
sticks are often cut H, 2, and even 3 feet long. 
A stack of such wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet 
long, is considered 1 cord, but the price is 
always made to conform to the shortness of 
the measure. 

A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord. A cord 
foot is a stack of 4-foot wood 4 feet high and 
I foot long. Farmers frequently speak of a 
foot of cord wood, meaning a cord foot. By 
the expression "surface foot" is meant the 
number of square feet measured on the side 
of a stack. 

In some localities, particularly in New 
England, cord wood is measured by means of 
calipers. Instead of stacking the wood and 
computing the cords in the ordinary way, the 
average diameter of each log is determined 
with calipers and the number of cords ob- 
tained by consulting a table which gives the 
amount of wood in logs of different diameters 
and lengths, expressed in so-called cylindrical 
feet; A cylindrical foot is one one-hundred 
and twenty-eighth of a cord. A better term 
would be "stacked cubic foot," as it repre- 
sents a cubic foot of stacked wood, as opposed 
to a cubic foot of solid wood. The number of 
cylindrical or stacked cubic feet in a log is 
computed by squaring the average diameter 
of the log in inches, multiplying by the length 
of the log in feet, and dividing the result by 
144. 

Some tables give the results in feet and 
inches (cylindrical or stacked cubic, not 
linear feet) 

A special caliper rule for measuring cord 
wood has been made by Mr. John Humphrey, 
of Keene, N. H. Instead of considering a 
cylindrical or stacked cubic foot equivalent to 
one one-hundred and twenty-eighth of a cord, 
he has assumed it to be equivalent to one one- 
hundredth of a cord. In either case the 
cylindrical or stacked cubic foot is a purely 
arbitrary unit and the final results in cords are 
the same. 

The number of cylindrical or stacketl 
cubic feet in the different logs is determined 
by means of calipers and reference to a 
table, or by means of the calipers alone if the 
results are inscribed directly upon them. 
The total number of cylindrical or stacked 
cubic feet is then divided by 128. 

CONVERSION OF CORD MEASURE 
INTO CUBIC MEASURE. 

Dealers in wood frequently wish to convert 
cord measure into cubic measure, and vice 
versa. The' converting factor used depends 
primarily on the form of ttie wood. If the 
wood is split, there is more solid content.-i 
in a stacked cord than if the wood is in 



[65] 



(Board Measure) 



(Heat) 



round sticks. There is more wood in a 
given stack if the sticks are .smooth and 
straight than if ihey are rough and crookedv 
The convertmg factor depends, fiarther, on 
the character of the stacking. If the wood is 
; skillfully stacked, there is more solid contents 
than when the work is poorly done. It has 
been found in. Europe through a series of care- 
ful measurements that a stack of wood may 
be reduced ,to solid cubic measure by multi- 
plying the number of cubic feet by the follow- 
ing factors: 

For split firewood. 0.7 

For small round firewood.. .. -...; . . ..G 

Thus, a cord of split firewood is equiyalent 
to 128 cubic feet multiplied by 0.7,' which 
equals 89.6 cubic feet. . To convert a given 
number of cords into solid ciibic feet, multi- 
ply by 128. and then multiply the product by 
0.7 or 0.6, according as the wood is split or 
xjonsists of small round, sticks; or multiply 
directly by 89.6. - - ■ • 

To convert a given number of solid cubic 
. feet into cords, divide by 128 and then divide 
the result by Q.7 or 0.6, according to the form 
of the wood; or divide directly by 89.6. If 
the stacking is very poor or if the wood is 
rough and crooked, the figures must be modi- 
fied. 

No rule can be given fpr concerting cord 
measure, into board measure. Lumbermen 
assign to a cord of wood lvalues varying from 
500 to, 1,000 board feet. So much depends 
upon the, quality of the wood, the purpose for 
which it is to be used, the method of piling, 
etc., that, no constant converting factor can be 
given. 

Bark is piled in stacks and measured in the 
same way as firewood.- 

CONVERSION OF CUBIC MEASURE 

INTO BOARD MEASURE. 

The ratjo between the number of board feet 
and cubic feet in logs depends on the species 
of tree, on the size of the logs, and on the 
method of scaling. The ratio for standing 
trees depends, further, on the minimum size 
of the merchantable log. For example, the 
ratio would be different, if 4 logs were cut 
from a tree, from the result if only 3 logs were 
taken.. Satisfactory figures can, therefore, 
be obtained only by comparing the scales of 
logs and trees actually measured in the woods. 
Such tables are now being prepared by the 
Bureau of Forestry for different species in 
different regions. 

MEASUREMENT OF SAWED LUMBER- 
BOARD MEASURE. 

The superficial measure of inch boards is 
obtained by multiplying the width in inches 
by the length m feet and dividing by 12. Ta- 
bles showing the contents of boards of differ- 
ent widths and lengths are published in prac- 
tically' ^very lumberman's ready reckoner, of 
which ^here are many on the market. 

The contents of boards thicker than 1 inch 
ar^ o)>tained by multiplying the width in 
inches by the thickness in inches and the 
prof'.iJist by the length in feet, and then divid- 
ing *;y 12. — The Woodman's jjnndhook. 



HARDNESS OF MINERALS: 

2'. Rock Salt. (Scratched by fi^nger naiL 

3.' Calcite ' 1 

5! ApTtite 1" Scratched by a knife blade. 

6. Ort loclase J 

1. Quartz V 

8. Topaz I May be roughly distin- 

9. Corundum f guished by a file. 
10. Diamond. 



HEAT— ITS MECHANICAL 
EQUIVALENT. 

Heat is a peculiar motion of the particles of 
matter which prevents their contact. Heat 
and mechanical power are convertible forms 
of energy The energy of the heat that 
raises one pound of water 1° F. will lift a 
weight of 778 lbs. one foot. The power of 
a weight of 778 lbs. descending one foot, if 
applied to a small paddle-wheel turning in 
one pound of water, Will, by friction, raise 
the temperature of the water 1° F. 

A heat-unit is the amount of heat that raises 
a pound of water 1° F., or that lifts a weight 
of 778 lbs., one foot. 

The. mechanical equivalent of a heat-unit is 
the power of a weight of 778 lbs. descending 
one foot, or of a one-pound weight descending 
778 feet. Hence, 

778 foot-pounds = 1 heat-unit. 
1 heat-unit = 778 foot-pounds, 

A galvanic battery that produces an elec- 
trical current capable of heating one pound of 
Water 1° F., will yield magnetic force suffi- 
cient to raise a weight of 778 lbs. one foot 
high. 

Thus' heat, electricity, magnetism, and 
chemical force are brought into niimerical 
correlation with mechanical power. 

The illustrious philosopher. Dr. J. P. Joule, 
of Manchester, England, first measured accu- 
rately *the mechanical equivalent of heat, 
A.D. 1845. 

Heat of Metals. — A metal is an element 
possessing a luster, and the higher oxides of 
which only are acid-forming compounds. 
Metals have the following properties: A spe- 
cific gravity usually greater than one. "The 
specific heat is less than unity, and this heat 
varies inversely as the atomic weight of that 
element. The conductivity of the metals is 
greater than that of either the non-metals or 
their compounds. 

The influence of heat upon metals is very 
varied; some melt at a low temperature, 
others require a red heat, a strong red, or a 
white heat respectively, to melt them. The 
following table, by Pouillet, will explain the 
temperatures corresponding to different colors. 



Heat Color. 



Incipient red heat. . . 

Dull red 

Incipient cherry red. 

Cherry red 

Clear cherry red 

Deep orange". 

Clear orange. 

White 

Bright white 

Dazzling white 



Corresponds to 



525° C. 


977° F. 


700 


1,292 


800 


1,472 


900 


1,652 


1,000 


1.832 


1,100 


2,012 


1,200 


2.192 


1,300 


2,372 


1,400 


2,552 


1,500 


2.732 



r^B] 



(Steam Pressure) 



(Temperatures) 



STPAM PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE. 



Pressure 


Corresponding 


Pressure 


Corresponding 


Pressure 


Corresponding 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


in Lbs. per 


Temperature, 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


Sq. In. 


Fahrenheit. 


10 


192.4 


65. 


301.3 


140 


357.9 


15 


212.8 


70 


306.4 


150 


363.4 


20 


228.5 


75 


311.2 


.160 


368.7 


25 


241.0 


80 


315.8 


170 


373.6 


30 


251.6 


85 


320.1 


180 


378.4 


35 


260; 9. 


90 


324.3 


190 


382.9 


40 


269.1 


95 


328.2 


200 


387.3 


45 


276.4 


100 


332.0 


210 


391.5 


50 


283.2 


110 


339.2 


220 


395.5 


55 


289.3 


120 


345.8 


230 


399.4 


60 


295.6 


130 


352.1 


240 


403.1 



Degree of Fahr. 

2,786 

1,996 

1,947 

1,873., 

1,750 

1,000 

980 

941 

773. 

644 

640 

630 

617 

600 u . . . 

518 

442 

380 

356 

315 

302 

257 

256 

239 

238 

221. . 

220 

218 

216 

214 

213 or (213.5). 
212 



TABLE OF TEMPERATURE. 
Degree of Fahr. 



of 



Cast iron melts (Daniell). 
Copper melts (Daniell). 
Gold melts. . 
Silver melts (Daniell). 
Brass (containing 25% 

zinc) melts (Daniell). 
Iron, bright cherry red (Poil- 

let). 
Red heat, visible in daylight 

(Daniell). 
Zinc begins to bum (Daniell). 
Zinc melts (Daniell). 
Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 

(Graham). 
Sulphuric acid boils (Ma- 

grignac), 620 (Graham). 
Whale oil boils (Graham). 
Pure lead melts (Rudberg). 
Linseed oil boils. 
Bismuth melts (Gmelin). 
Tin melts (Crichton). ' 
Arseriious acid volatilizes. 
Metallic arsenic sublimes. 
Oil of turpentine boils 

(Kaure). 
Etherification ends. 
Saturated sol. of sal ammo- 
niac boils (Taylor). 
Saturated sol. of acetate of 

soda boils. 
Sulphur melts (Miller), 226 

(Fownes). 
Saturated sol. of nitre boils. 
Saturated sol. of salt boils 

(Paris Codex). 
Saturated sol. of alum, carb. 

soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. 
Saturated sol. of chlorate and 

prussiate potash, boil. 
Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, 

sulph. copper, nitrate of 

Jead, boil. 
Saturated sol. of acetate 

lead, sulph. and bitar- 

trate potash, boil. 
Water begins to boil in 

glass. 
Water boils in metal, barom- 
eter at SO**. 



[67] 



211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 

lead, melts. 
201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 

tin, melts (Kane). 

207 Sodium melts (Regnault). 

185 Nitric acid 1.52 begins to boil. 

180 (about). . . Starch forms a gelatinous 

compound with water. 
176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol 

distils. 
173 Alcohol (sp. gr. .796 to .800) 

boils. 
151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 

(Lepage). 
150 Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scan- 
Ian). 
145. ......... White of egg begins tc coag- 
ulate. 
141.8 V Chloroform, and ammonia of 

.945, boil. 
132. ., Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) 

boils (Kane). 
122. Mutton suet and styracin 

melt. 
116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils 

(Graham). 
115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 

92 (Thomson). 
112 Spermaceti and stearin of 

lard melt. 

Ill Phosphorus melts (Miller). 

98 Temperature of the blood. 

95 Ether (.720) boils. 

95 Carbolic acid crystals be- 
come an oily liquid. 
88 Acetous fermentation ceases, 

water boils in vacuo. 
77 Vinous ferm. ends, .acetous 

ferm. begins. 

64.4 Oil of anise liquefies. 

59 Gay Lussac's Alcoometre 

graduated at. 

55 Sirups to be kept at. 

30 (about). . . Olive oil becomes partially 

solid. 

32 Water freezes. 

5 Cold produced by • snow 2 

parts and salt 1 part. 
■ 37.9 Mercury freezes. 



(Expansion of Solids) 



(Expansion of Liquids) 



LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURES. 



Substance. 



Aluminium (cast).. . . 
Antimony (cryst,) . .. 
1-irass, cast 

" English plat6. 
sheet. ....... 

Brick, best stock. . . . 

Bronze (Daily's). . . . 

Copper, 17. 

Tin, 2^ . 

Zinc, 1 



Cement, Roman, dry. 
Cement, Portland 

(mixed), pure 

Cement, Portland, 

mortar, with sand.. 
Concrete: cement 

mortar and pebbles 

Copper 

Ebonite 

Glass, English flint. . 

' ' French flint. . . 

" white, free 
from lead.. . 

" blown . 

" thermometer... 

** hard. . 

Granite, gray, dry. . . 
red "... 

Gold, pure 

Iridium, pure. ...... 

Iron, wrought 

" Swedish 

' ' cast 

* ' soft. 

Lead. 

Marble, moist. ...... 

dry. 

white "Sicil- 
ian, dry. . 
Marble, black Galway 
' ' Carrara . . . : 
Masonry, of brick in 

cement mortar: 

headers. . 



Forl°Fahr. For 1° Cent 



Length = 1, 
.00001234 
.00000027. 
.00000957 
.00001052 
.00001040 
.00000310 

.00000986 

.00000975 
.00000797 

.00()00594 

.00000656 

.00000795 
.00000887 
.00004278 
.00000451 
.00000484 

.00000492 
.00000498 
.00000499 
.00000397 
.00000438 
.00000498 
.00000786' 
.00000356 
.00000648 
.00000636 
.00000556 
.00000026 
.00001571 
.00000663 
.00000363 

.00000786 
.00000308 
.00000471 



.00000494 



Length = 1. 
.00002221 
.00001129 
.00001722 
.00001894 
.00001872 
.00000550 

.00001774 

.00001755 
.00001435. 

.00001070 

.00001180 

.00001430 
.00001596 
,00007700 
.00000812 
.00000872 

.00000880 
.00000896 
.00000897 
.00000714 
.00000789 
.00000897 
.00001415 
:00000641 
..00001166 
.00001145 
.00001001 
.00001126 
,.00002828 
.00001193. 
.00000654 

.00001415 
.00000554 
.00000848 



.00000890 



Substance. 



For 1° Fahr. For 1 ° Cent. 



Masonry, o( brick in 
cement mortar: 
stretchers. . 

Mercury, (cubio ex- 
pansion). . . . . 

Nickel. ..,.,., : 

. Osmium. . . .- . . .....^ ... 

Palladium, piirevi .... 

Pewter. 

Plaster, white. . ..... 

Platinum '. . . . 

Platinum, 90 per cent. 
Iridium, 10 per 
cent. ......... 

hammered and an 
nealed. ..-,..,.., 

Platinum, 85 per 
cent ...... 

Iridium, 15 ' i)er 
cent. . . . .... 

Porcelain -. 

Quartz, parallel to 
major axis, t 0° to 
40° C;. ... ... . 

Quartz, perpendicu- 
lar' to ma jot axis, t 

0° to 40° c. : 

Quartz, cubic expan- 
sion at 16° C 

Silver, pure.. .■ 

Slate. ......-, .... 

Steel, cast. ; .■ 

" • tempered. .... 

Stone (sandstonie), 
dry >. 

Stone (sandstone), 
Rauville . . 

Stone (sandstone). 
Caen 

Tin..... 

Wedgwood ware.... . 

Wood, pine .;. ' 

Zinc. .'. . . i 

Zinc, 8 : I 

Tin, 1.. 



Length;^- 1, 



.00000256 

.00009984 
.00000695 
.00000317 
.00000556 
■.00001129 
.00000922 
.00000479 

1 

I 

1- .00000476 

I 

J 

1 

V .00000453 

.00000200 



.00000434 



U 



.00000788 

.00001924 
; 00001 079 
:00000577 
.f 0000636 
.00000689 

.00000652 

.00000417 

.00000494 
.00001163 
.00000489 
.00000276 
.00001407 ! 

00001490 



Length = 1. 



.00000460 

.(H)01797l 
.00001251 
.00000570 
.00001000 
.00002033 
.00001660 



.00000857 



.00000815 
.00000360 

.00000781 

.00001410 

.00003463 
.00001943 
.00001038 
.00001144 
.001)01240 

.00001174 

.00000750 

.00000890- 
.00002094 
.00000881 
.00000496 
.00002532 

.00002692 



EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS. 
The cubical expansion, or expansion of vol- 
ume, of water, from 32° F. to 212° F- and up- 
wards, is given in the following Table. The 
rate, of expansion increases with the tempera- 
ture. The expansion for the range of tem- 
perature from 32° to 212° is .0466, or fully 4^ 
per cent, of the. volume at 32°; or an, average 
of .000259 per degree, or 35V3 part of the vol- 
ume at 32° F. 

Expansion of Liquids from 32° to 21.2° F. 
Volume at 32°= 1. 



Liquid. 


Volume 
at 212°. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Alcohol 


1.1100. 

1.1100 

1.0800 

1 . 0700 

1.0500 

1.0466 

1.018 


A 


Nitric acid. . . 


1 




1^5 


Turpentine , 

Sea water 

Water '. 


1 


Mercury 



-Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. 

I Friction. — The ratio obtained by dividing 
the entire force of friction by the normal pres- 
sure is called the coefficient of friction. The 
unit or coefficient of friction is the. friction 
due to a nol-mal pressure of one pound: 

Iron on oak. 0. 62 

C!ast iron on oak. . . .., 0! 49 

Oak on oak, fibres parallel ...... . 48 

Oak on oak,, greased.' . 0. 10 

Cast iron on cast iron, v. 0.15 

Wrought iron on wrought iron. . . 0.14 

Brass on iron. . ^ . . . .^. . . . 0. 16 

Brass on brass . 20 

Wrought iron on cast iron 0. 19 

Cast iron on elm. .. ........ .0.19 

Soft limestone on the same. . . . .0.64. 

Hard limestone on the same. ... . ^0.38 

Leather belts on wooden piiUeys. 0.47 

Leather belts on cast-iron pulleys 0.28 

Cast iron on cast iron, greased. .. 0.10 

Pivots or axes of wrought or cast iron, OD 

brass or cast-iron pillows: 

First, when constantly supplied with oil. 0.05 

Second, when greased from time to time. 0.08( 

Third, without any applicatipn .' 0. 15, 

[68] 



(Strength of Materials) 



(Water) 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
METALS. 



Name of Metal. 


Tensile 
Strength in 
Pounds per 

Sq. In. 


Aluminum wire .• 

Brass wire, hard drawa 

Bronze, nhosphor.hard drawn 

" silicon " " 
Copper wire, hard drawn. . . . 
Gold * wire 


30,000-40,000 
50.000-150,000 
110,000-140,000 
95,000-115,000 
60,000-70,000 
38,000-41,000" 


Iron, t cast 

* ' wire, hard drawn. .... 

" ' * annealed 

Lead, cast or drawn ....... 

Palladium * 

Platinum * wire. 


13,000-29,000 

80,000-120,000 

60,000-60,000 

2,600-3,300 

39,000 

50,000 

42,000 


Steel, mild, hard drawn 

" hard •• ** 

Tin, cast or drawn. .... 


100,000-200,000 

150,000-330,000 

4,000-5,000 

7,000-13,000 


' * drawn. 


22,000-30,000 



STONES AND BRICKS. 


Name of Substance. 


Resistance to 

Crushing in 

Pounds per 

Sq. In. 


Basalt. . 


18,000-27,000 


Brick, soft 


300-1,500 


' * hard 


1,500-5,000 


* • vitrified. ... ....... 

Granite 


9,000-26,000 
17,000-26,000 


Limestone. . . * 

Marble 

Sandstone 

Slate f.. 


4,000-9,000 
9,000-22,000 
4,500-8,000 
11,000-30,000 



TIMBER. 





Tensile 


Resistance to 


Name of Wood 


Strength 
in Pounds per 


Crushing in 
Pounds per 




Sq. In. 


Sq. In. 


Ash 


11,000-21,000 
11,000-18,000 


6,000-9,000 


Beech 


9,000-10.000 


Birch 


12,000-18,000 


5,000-7,000 


Chestnut 


10.000-13.000 


4.000-6,000 


Elm 


12,000-18,000 
10,000-16,000 


6,000-10.000 


Hackberry. . .. 




Hickory 


15.000-25,000 


7,000-12.000 


Maple 


8.000-12,000 


6,000-8.000 


Mulberry. .... 


8,000-14.000 




Oak, burr. . . . 


15.000-20,000 


7,000-10,000 


" red 


13,000-18,000 


5,000-7, OCO 


' • water. . . 


12,000-16.000 


4,000-6,000 


' ' white. . 


20.000-25,000 


6,000-9,000 


Poplar 


10,000-15,000 


5,000-8,000 


Walnut 


8,000-14,000 


4,000-8,OCO 



♦ On the authority of Wertheim. 

t The crushing strength of cast iron is from 
5.5 to 6.5 times the tensile strength. 

Notes. — According to Boys, quartz fibers 
have a tensile strength of between 116,000 and 
167,000 pounds per square inch. 

Leather belting of single thickness bears 
from 400 to 1,600 pounds per inch of its 
breadth. ^-Smithsonian Tables. 



WATER. 

1 U. S. gallon equals 231 cubic inches; .1337 
cubic foot; 8.333 pounds of water at 62° -F.; 
3.786 liters. 

1 cubic inch of water at 62° F. equals .03608 
pound; .5773 ounce; 252.6 grains; .004326 
U. S. gallon; .01638 liter. 

1 cubic foot of water at 62° F. equals 
62.355 pounds; 997.68- ounces (about 1000); 
.557 cwt. (of 112 pounds); .0278 long ton; 
7.4805 U. S. gallons; 28.315 liters; .02832 
cubic meter. 

1 cylindrical inch of water at 62° F. equals 
.02833 pound; .4533 ounce; .7854 cubic inch. 

1 cylindrical foot of water at 62° F. equals 
48.973 pounds (about 50); 783.57 ounces; 
.437 cwt. (of 112 pounds); .0219 long ton; 
5.8758 U. S. gallons; 22.2380 liters; .02224 
cubic meter. 

1 cubic yard of water equals 1,684.8 pounds; 
15.043 cwt. (of 112 pounds), or 15 cwt. 4.8 
pounds; .7645 cubic meter. 

1 liter of water equals 2.2046 pounds at 
62° F.; .2641 U. S. gallon; 61.025 cubic inches; 
.0353 cubic foot. 

1 cubic meter of water equals 1 metric ton, 
or 1.000 kilograms at 39.1° F. or4°C.; 2.204.62 
pounds at 39.1° F. or 4° C; 2,203.7 pounds at 
62.4 pounds per cubic foot; 1 ton of 2,240 
pounds, nearly; 1 tun of 4 hogsheads, or 2,100 
pounds, nearly; 264.2 U. S. gallons; 1.308 
cubic yards; 35.3156 cubic feet; 1,000 liters. 

The weight of fresh water is commonly 
assumed, in ordinary calculations, to be 
62.4 pounds per cubic foot, which is the 
weight at 52.3° F. It is frequently taken 
as 62-i- pounds or 1,000 ounces per cubic foot. 

The volumes of given weights of water, 
at the rate of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, 
are as follows: 

1 ton (long), 35.90 cubic feet (about 36); 
1 cwt. (of 112 pounds), 1.795 cubic feet; 1 
pound, .016 cubic feet or 27,692 cubic inches; 
1 ounce, 1.731 cubic inches; 1 metric ton, at 
39.1° F. or 4° C, 35.3156 cubic feet; 1 kilo- 
gram, at 39.1° F. or 4° C, .0353 cubic feet or 
61.025 cubic inches; 1 metric ton, at 52.3° F. 
(62.4 pounds per cubic foot), 35.330 cubic feet. 

A pipel yard in length holds about as 
many pounds of water at ordinary tempera- 
tures as the square of its diameter in inches 
(about two per cent. more). 

A column of water at 62° F., 1 foot high, 
is equivalent to a pressure of .433 pound or 
6.928 ounces per square inch of base; or to 
62.355 pounds per square foot. 

A column of water 1 inch high is equivalent 
to a pressure of .5773 ounce or .03608 pound 
per square inch; or to 5.196 pounds per 
square foot. 

A column of water 100 feet high is equiva- 
lent to 43^ pounds per square inch; or 2.786 
tons per square foot. 

A column of water 1 mile deep, weighing 
62.4 pounds per cubic foot, is equivalent to 
a pressure of about 1 ton per square inch. 

1 pound per square inch is equivalent to a 
column of water at 62° F. 2.31 feet or 27.72 
inches high. 

SEA WATER. 

1 cubic ^ ot at 62° F., 64 pounds; 1 cubic 
yard, 15^ cvt., nearly (8 pounds less); 1 cubic 
meter, 1 long ton, fully (20 pounds more); 
1 ton, 35 cubic feet. 

Ratio of weight of fresh water to that of 
sea water, 39 to 40, or 1 to 1.028. 



69] 



(Ice and Snow) 



(Pipes) 



ICE AND SNOW. 
I cubic foot of ice at 32" F., 57.50 pounds; 
1 pound of ice at 32° F., .0174 cubic foot, or 
30.067 cubic inches; specific density of ice, 
*922; that of water at 62° F. being 1. 

AIR. 

1 cubic foot, at 14.7 lbs. per square inch, 
JOT 1 atmosphere, equals .080728 lb. at 32° F. 
1.29 ounce at 32° F.; 565.1 grains at 32° F. 
.076097 lb. at 62° F.; 1.217 ounce at 62° F. 
532.7 grains at 62° F. 

1 liter, under 1 atmosphere, equals 1.293 
grams at 32° F.; 19.955 grains at 32° F. 

1 lb. of air at 62° F. equals 13.141 cubic feet. 

The weights of equal volumes of mercury, 
water, and air. at 62° F. under 1 atmosphere, 
are as 11,140.56, 819.4, and 1. 

1 atmosphere of pres^'ure equals 14.7 lbs. 
per square inch; 2,116.1 lbs. per square 
foot; 1.0335 kilograms per square centi- 
meter; 29.922 inches of mercury at 32° F.; 
76 centimeters of mercury at 32° F. ; 30 inches 
of mercury at 62° F. ; 33.947 feet of water at 
62° F.; 10.347 meters of water at 62° F. 

1 lb. per square inch equals 2.035 inches of 
mercury at 32° F. ; 51.7 millimeters of mercury 
at 32° F.; 2.04 inches of mercury at 62° F.; 
2.31 feet of water av 62° F.; 27.72 inches of 
water at 62° F. 

1 ounce per square inco equals 1.732 inches 
of water at 62° F. 

1 lb. per square foot equals .1925 inch of 
water at 62° F.; .01417 inch of mercury at 
62^ F. 

STRENGTH OF ICE. 
Ice 2 in. thick will bear iniantry. 
Ice 4 in. thick will bear cavalry or light 
guns. 

Ice 6 in. thick will bear heavy field guns. 
Ice 8 in. thick will bear 24-pounder guns on 
sledges; weight not over 1,000 lbs. to a square 
foot. 

WEIGHT OF BALLS. 



W- 



D3+00 



D = '^/WXC -00. 
When £) = diameter of ball in inches; 
W = weight of ball in lbs. ; 
C= aconstant = 733 for cast iron; 
= 464 for lead; 
= 595 for copper; 
= 635 for brass. 
or, 

Tr = D3xC; 

D ='^WXC. 

When C==a constant = 0.1364 for cast iron; 
= 0.2155 for lead; 
= 0.168 for copper; 
= 0.1574 for brass. 

Weight of cast-iron balls. 

,r-(^)=xo... 

To find nominal horse-power of boiler required 
for direct-acting steam-pumps. 

.„,p_ i)=^ — the last figure 

When N HP = nom\na.\ horse-power; 

Z)= diameter of steam cylinder 
in inches. 



PIPES. 

Usual inclination of pipes. 

1 in. in 12 ft. =minimum fall for house 

drains ; 
I 41 •< jg«i =iiiinimum fall for land 

drains ; 
1 •« •• 40" = minimum fall for sub-drains 

for houses; 
1 " " 100" = minim vun fall for main 

drains for houses ; 
1 " " 150" = fall of mountain torrents; 
1 " ' * 230 " = " " rivers and rapid cur- 
rents ; 
1 " " 280 " = fall of strong currents ; 
1 " " 340 " = " " ordinary rivers with 

good current; 
1 " " 440 ' * =fall of winding rivers subject 
to inundations with slow 
current ; 
1 ". " ■ 480 " =fall of water channels, sup- 
ply pipes to reservoirs and 
small canals; 
1 " '* 570" = fall of large canals; 
1 " " 1,000 " =very slow current, approach- 
ing to stagnant water. 
Discharge through pipes. 
Discharge in 24 hours divided by 1,440 = 
discharge per min. ; discharge in cubic feet 
per minute X 9,000 = imperial gallons per day 
of 24 hours; discharge in cubic feet per min- 
ute X 11 ,000 = U. S. gallons per day of 24 hours ; 
discharge in cubic feet per second X 2.2 = cubic 
yards per minute; discharge in cubic feet per 
second X 6.24= imperial gallons per second; 
discharge in cubic feet per second X 7.48 = 
U. S. gallons per second; discharge in cubic 
feet per second X 133 = cubic yards per hour; 
discharge in cubic feet per second X 375 = im- 
perial gallons per minute; discharge in cubic 
feet per second X 450= U. S. gallons per min- 
ute; discharge in cubic feet per second'X 2,400 
= long tons per day of 24 hours; discharge in 
cubic feet per second X 2,700 = short tons per 
day of 24 hours ; velocity in feet per second X 
0.68=mile per hour; velocity in feet per sec- 
ond X 60= feet per minute; velocity in feet 
per second X 20 = yards per minute; pressure 
head of water in feet = pressure of water in lbs. 
per square foot X 0.01 6; pressure of water in 
lbs. per square foot = head in feet X 62.32. 

ANIMAL POWER— HORSE. 
A horse walking in a circle at a speed of 176 
feet per minute will raise with a common 
deep-well piunp — 
4 h. per day 1,653 gals,, per min. ; 1 ft. high. 
5" " " 1,480 " " " ♦• " 
6 " *' " 1,350 " " " " •• 
8 " " " 1,160 " " " " *• 
10 " •' " 1,040 " " " " " 

Tractive force of a horse when working 8 
hours a day on a well-made road aad walking 
at a rate of 2^ mUes per hour, 150 lbs. 

Tractive force of a horse when working a 
lift or horse-nm with intervals of rest between 
each movement, the day's work not to exceed 
6 hoius, 300 lbs. 

, Tractive force of a horse when working in 
a circle of 30 feet diameter in working a mill 
for 8 hours per day at a pace of 2 miles per 
hour, 100 lbs. 

A horse can exert a force horizontally at 
a dead pull, 400 lbs. 

A horse can carry on his back a distance 
of 20 miles per day on a well-made road, 
without overexertion, from 250 to 300 Iba. 



[70] 



(Windmills) 



(Windmills) 



The horse-power adopted as a unit in esti- 
mating the force of a steam-engine = 33,000 
lbs. raised 1 foot high in 1 minute, an amount 
of force which few horses could perform for 
any length of time. 

MANUAL POWER. 
Duration of work = l day of 8 to 10 hours. 



Description of Work 


Mean 
Effect 

in 
Lbs. 


Veloc- 
ity in 
Feet 
per 
Minute. 


Lbs. 
Raised 
1 Foot 

High 

per 
Minute. 


Lifting weights by 
hand breast high 

Raising water from a 
well by a bucket 
and rope 

Lifting a weight by 
a rope and over- 
head tackle 

Working a hand 


40 

30 

40 

30 

12 

25 

15 
40 


25 

35 

30 

60 

160 

100 

200 
80 


1,000 

1,050 

1,200 
1,800 


Drawing a canal 
boat 


1,920 


Working a ship's 


2,500 


Turning the crank of 


3,000 


Rowing a boat. 


3,200 



The efforts in the above table, a,lthough ex- 
tending over 8 or 10 hours, exclusive of meal- 
times, per day, are not altogether continuous, 
but include the usual intervals of rest or 
diminished exertion peculiar to each class 
of work. 

WINDMILLS. 
To find the horse-power of a wind-engine. 

1,100,000' 
When //P = effective horse-power; 

A =area of sails in square feet; 
F = velocity of the wind in feet 
per second. 
To find the area of sails required for a given 
horse-power. 
A '^PX 1.100.000 
_4 -— y2 • 

The best effect is obtained when the total 
surface of the sails presented to the wind does 
not cover more than three-quarters of the sur- 
face of the whole disk described by the radial 
arms or whips. 

To find the force of wind. 
P = 0.002288 F2; 
P = 0.00422 FjZ; 
P = 0.0023 F2 X sinX. 
When P = pressure in lbs. per square foot; 
F = velocity in feet per second; 
Fi = velocity in miles per hour; 
X = angle of incidence of direction of 
the wind with the plane of the 
surface when it is oblique. 
To find the angle of the sails. 

When a = angle of the sail with the plane of 

motion at any part of the sail ; 

Z) = distance of any part of the sail 

from the axis in feet ; 
/{== total radius of sail in feet. 



To -find angle of shaft with horizon. 
a = 8 degrees on level ground ; 
= 15 degrees on high ground. 
To find breadth of whip., 

B =yzoWx 

D =HoW; 
Bx =HoW; 
Di =Ho^; 

When W = length of whip in feet ; 

Wi = width of sail in feet; 

B = breadth of whip at axis in feet; 

D- = depth of whip at axis in feet; 

By = breadth of whip at tip in feet; 

Di = depth of whip at tip in feet ; 
Divided by the whip in the proportion of 
5 to 3, the narrow portion being nearest to 
the wind. Wu=^W- 

When Trii= width of sail at axis; 

D\i = distance of sail from axis. 

Cross-bars from 16 to 18 inches apart. 

Velocity of tip of sails = 2.6 V. nearly. 

In examining the ratio between the velocity 
of the wind and the number of revolutions of 
the wheel-shaft Mr. Smeaton obtained the 
result in table below, for Dutch sails, in their 
common position, when the radius of the 
wheel was 30 feet: 
Number of Rev- 



olutions of 
Wheel-shaft 
per Minute. 

3 
5 



Velocity of 
Wind in 
an Hour. 

2 miles 

4 " 

5 " 



Ratio between 
Velocity of 
the Wind 
and Revolu- 
tions of Wheel- 
shaft. 
0.666 
0.800 
0.833 



The most efficient angles. 
Part of Radius 



which is 
Divided in Six 
Parts. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



Angle with 
the Axis. 

72° 

71° 

72° 

74° 

77r 

83° 



Angle of 
Weather. 

18° 
19° 

18° middle 
16° 
12i° 
70 



Supposing the radius of the sail to be 30 
feet, then the sail will commence at ith, or 
5 feet from the axis, where the angle of incli- 
nation will be 72°, at gths or 10 feet from the 
axis will be 71°, and so on. 

In order to utilize the maximum effect of 
wind, therefore, it is necessary to load the 
wind-engine so that the number of revolutions 
of the wheel is proportional to the velocity 
of the wind. 

To find proper number of revolutions of a 
wind-mill. 
JJ6XF. 

ifc;.i6», ^x^'"''' 

When iV = number of revolutions of wheel per 
minute ; 
F = velocity of the wind in feet per 
s econd ; 

L = \/^iil^^= radius of center of 
2 percussion in feet; 

R= extreme radius of wheel in feet; ' 
fti= inner radius of wheel in feet; 
U=mea.n angle of sails to the plane of 
motion. 



[71] 



(Force of Wind) 



(Weights of Metals) 



FORCE OF WIND WHEN BLOWING PERPENDICULARLY UPON A SURFACE 
OF ONE SQUARE. FOOT. 



Velocity of Wind. 


Perpendicular 

Force on One 

Square Foot 

in Lbs. 




Miles per 
Hour. 


Feet per 
Minute. 


Feet per 
Second. 


Description. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 


88 

176 

264 

352 

440 

880 

1,320 

1.760 

2,200 

2,640 

3,080 

3,520 

3,960 

4,400 

5,280 

6,160 

7,040 

8,800 


1.47 

2.93 

4.40 

5.87 

7.33 

14.67 

22.00 

29.30 

36.60 

44.00 

51.30 

58.60 

66.00 

73.30 

88.00 

102.7 

117.3 

146.6 


.005 

.020 

.044 

.079 

.123 

.492 

1.107 

1.968 

3.075 

4.428 

6.027 

7.872 

9.963 

12.300 

17.712 

24.108 

31.488 

49.200 


Hardly perceptible 
Just perceptible 

Gentle breeze 

it 4» 

Pleasant 

Brisk gale 

High wind 

Very high wind 

Storm 
Great stoma 

Hurricane 



— ^Whittaker's Mechanical Engineer 's Pocket Book. 



METALS: WEIGHTS FOR VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. 



Metal. 


Specific 
Weight. 


Weight 
of One 
Cubic 
Foot. 


Weight of One 
Square Foot. 


Weight 
of One 
Linear 
Foot 1 
In. Sq. 


Weight 
of One 


1 Inch 
Thick. 


ilnch 
Thick. 


A Inch 
Thick. 


Cubic 
Inch. 


Aluminum, wrought . . 

cast 

Antimony . . 


Wrought 

Iron = l. 

.348 

.333 

.879 

1.285 

1.052 

1.098 

1.079 

1.062 

1.110 

1.106 

1.133 

1.004 

.969 

1.114 

1.158 

1.154 

2.500 

.937 

1.000 

1.483 

1.040 

1.769 

1.127 

1.075- 

2.796 

1.365 

1.020 

.962 

.935 

.892 


Lbs. 

167 
160 
418 
617 
505 
527 
518 
511 
533 
531 
544 
482 
465 
549 
556 
554 

1200 
450 
480 
712 
499 
849 
541 
516 

1342 
655 
490 
462 
449 
428 


Lbs. 
13.92 
13.33 
34.83 
51.42 
42.08 
43.92 
43.17 
42.58 
44.42 
44.25 
45.33 
40.17 
38.75 
45.75 
46.33 
46.17 

100.00 
37.50 
40.00 
59.33 
41.58 
70.75 
45.08 
43.00 

111.83 
54.58 
40.83 
38.50 
37.42 
35.67 


Lbs. 
1.74 
1.67 
4.35 
6.42 
5.26 
5.49 
5.40 
5.32 
5.55 
5.54 
5.66 
5.04 
4.84 
5.72 
5.79 
5.77 
12.50 

5100 
7.41 
5.20 
8.84 
5.64 
5.37 
13.97 
6.82 
5.12 
4.81 
4. 67 
4.46 


Lbs. 
1.39 
1.33 
3.48 
5.14 
4.21 
4.39 
4.32 
4.26 
4.44 
4.43 
4.53 
4.02 
3.88 
4.58 
4.63 
4.62 

10.00 
3.75 
4.00 
5.93 
4.16 
7.07 
4.51 
4.30 

11.18 
5.46 
4.10 
3.85 
3.7't 
3.57 


Lbs. 
1.160 
1.111 
2.902 
4.283 
3.507 
3.652 
3.597 
3.549 
3.701 
3.688 
3.780 
3.347 
3.299 
3.813 
3.861 
3.778 
8.333 
3.125 
3.333 
4.944 
3.465 
5.896 
3.757 
3.583 
9.320 
4.549 
3.403 
3.208 
3.118 
2.972 


Lbs. 
.097 
.092 
.242 


Bismuth. . . 


.357 




.292 


sheet. . . 


.304 




.298 


Muntz metal. .... . 


.296 
.30S 


Bronze, gun-metal 

mill bearings. . . 

small bells 

*' speculum metal. . 

Copper, sheet 

" hammered 


.307 
.315 
.279 
.209 
.318 
.322 
.315 


(Inld 


.694 




.260 




.278 


Lead, sheet 

Mangane^^e 


.412 

.289 


Mercury 


.491 


Nickel, hammered 

•• cast 


.313 
.299 


Platinum. 


.777 


Silver 


.379 


Steel 


.284 


Tin. . 


.268 




.260 


" cast 


.248 



-Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. 



[72] 



(Boiler Tubes) 



(Nails) 



BOILER TUBES. 

The following table gives- the draught area and heating surface of the various-sized boiler 
tubes and flues: 



External 
Diameter. 


Draught Area in 
Square Inches. 


Draught Area 
in Square Feet. 


Outside Heating 

Surface in Feet 

per Foot of Tube 

in Length. 


Number of 
Tubes in One 
Square Foot of 
Draught Area. 


4 




'".575 
.968 
1|339 
1.911 
2.573 
3.333 
4.083 
6.027 
6.070 
7.116 
8.347 

■ 9.676 

10.93 

14.05 

17.35 

25.25 
,34.94 

46.20 

68.63 

72.23 


■.■do40 

.0067 

.00964 

.0133 

.0179 

.0231 

.0284 

.0349 

.0422 

.0494 

.0580 

.0672 

.0759 

.0996 

.1205 

.1753 

.2426 

.3208 

.4072 

.5016 


.1636 

.1963 

.2618 

.3272 

.3927 

.4581 

.5236 

.5891 

.6545 

.7200 

.7854 

.8508 

.9163 

.9818 

1.0472 

1.1781 

1.3090 

1.5708 

1.8326 

2.0944 

2.3562 

2.6180 




I.: :::::...:.. 






250 




149.3 




103.7 




75.2 
55.9 


Ol 


43.3 


2I 


35.2 


2* 


28.7 


3 


23 7 




20.2 


gl 


17.2 


3? 


14 9 


4 


13.2 


4* 


10.2 


6 .: ::::::: 


8 3 


6 


5.7 


7 


4,1 


8 


3 I 


9 

10 


2.5 

2.0 



TO OBTAIN INDEX OF A LATHE. 

How TO Obtain the Index of an Engine 
Lathe. — If you will note what thread the 
lathe will cut when two given gears are in 
place, you can easily constrtict a table that 
will show you just what thread any two gears 
will cause the lathe to cut. Suppose that two 
sixty-threes cause 12 threads to the inch. 
Then place 12 in the space A in the diagram 
below. 

Stud. 



35 

42 
49 
56 
63 
70 
77 
84 
91 
98 
105 
112 



283335424956 63 70778419198105112 



^°''* 63 • 70 ^•- A • E [ Direct proportion. 

^^"^^ 70 ; 63 :i A I D f I"^^'-^^ proportion. 

The spaces may all be filled except a, b, c, 
d, etc., which it is useless to fill, as only your 
63 gear is duplicated. A half-day's time 
will be sufficient for a good mathematician to 
fill out the table. 



Nails, Memoranda Concerning. — This, 
table will show at a glance the length of the 
various sizes, and the number of nails in a. 
pound. They are rated from *'3-penny" up 
to "20-penny." The first column gives the 
name, the second the length in inches, and the' 
third the number per pound: 

3-penny, 1 in. lopg,. 657 per lb. 

4-penny, H in. long, 353 per lb. 

5-pehny, li in. long, 232 per lb. 

6-penny, 2 in. long, 167 per lb. 

7-penny, 2i in. long, 141 per lb, 

8-penny, 2* in. long, 101 per lb. 

10-penny, 2^ in. long, 98 per lb. 

12-penny, 3 in. long, 54 per lb. 

20-penny, .3^ in. long, 34 per lb. 

Spikes, 4 in. long, 16 per lb. 

Spikes, ii in. long, 12 per lb. 

Spikes, 5 in. long, 10 per lb. 

Spikes, 6 in. long, 7 per lb. 

Spikes, 7 in. long, 5 per lb. 

From this table an estimate of quantity 

and suitable sizes for any job can be easily 

made. 

The relative adhesion of nails in the same 
wood, driven transversely and longitudinally,, 
is as 100 to 78, or about 4 to 3 in dry elm,, 
and 2 to 3 in deal. 

Horse-power, very Rough Way of Esti- 
mating. — The power of a steam engine is- 
calculated by m^ultiplying together the area 
of the piston in mches, the mean steam pres- 
sure in pounds per square inch, the length of 
stroke in feet, and the number of strokes per 
minute, and dividing the product by 33,000 
Or, multiply the square of the diameter of 
the cylinder in inches by. 0.7854, and this 
product by the mean engine pressure, and 
the last product by the niston travel in feet 
per minute. Divide the last product by 
33,000 for t he ind icated horse^power. _ la 



[7.3] 



(Gearing) 



(Pulleys) 



the absence of logarithmic formulse or ex- 
pansion table, multiply the boiler pressure 
for I- cut-off by 0.91; for ^ cut-off by 0.85, 
% cut-off by 0.75, ^ cut-off by 0.68. This 
will give the mean engine pressure per square 
inch near enough for ordinary practice, for 
steam pressures between 60 and 100 lbs., 
always remembering that the piston travel 
is twice the stroke multiplied by the number 
of revolutions pier minute. 

Castings, Contraction OF.-^By Messrs. 
Bowen & Co., brass founders, London. 

Inch. Ins. of 
length. 
In thin brass castings. ..... i in 9 

In thick " " i in 10 

In zinc castings ^a in 12 

In lead, according to purity. A to ?g in 12 
In copper " " " . ^to/^in 12 

In tin, " " *' . aistOTs in 12 

In silver, " " " . j in 12 

In cast iron, according to 

purity, small castings. ... t^ in 12 

In cast steel, according to 

purity, pipes i in 12 

The above values fluctuate with the form of 
pattern, amount of ramming, and tempera- 
ture of metal when poured. Green sand cast- 
ings contract less than loam or dry sand cast- 
ings. 

Gearing, Simple Rules on. — The follow- 
ing rules will apply to both bevel and spur 
gears. When the term pitch is used, it always 
signifies diametrical, not circular pitch. For 
illustrations we will use gears having 64 teeth 
and 8 pitch. 

To Find Pitch Diameter. — Divide the num- 
ber of teeth by the pitch: 64-^8 = 8 in. pitch 
diameter. 

To Find Number of Tee/A.— Multiply the 
pitch diameter by the pitch: 8 in. X 8 = 64, 
number of teeth. 

To Find the Pitch. — Divide the number of 
teeth by the pitch diameter: 64-i-8 in. =8, 
pitch. 

To Find Outside Diameter of Spur Wheels. — 
Add 2 to the number of teeth and divide by 
the pitch 6J+2 = 66-^8 = 8iin. O. D. 

To Find Circular Pitch. — Divide the deci- 
mal 3.1416 by the diametrical pitch: 3.1416 
-4- 8 = 0.3927 in. 

To Find the Distance between the Centers of 
Two Spur Gears. — Divide half the sum of the 
teeth of both gears by the pitch; 64+ 64 = 128 
-^2 = 64^8 = 8 in. centers. 

Pulleys, Rules for Calculating the 
Speed of. — The diameter of the driven being 
given, to find its number of revolutions' — 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver 
by its number of revolutions, and divide the 
product by the diameter of the driven; the 
quotient will be the number of revolutions of 
the driven. 

Ex. — Twenty-four in. diameter of driver 
XI50. number of revolutions, =3,000-^12 in. 
tliameter of driven = 300. 

The diameter and revolutions of the driver 
being given, to find the diameter of the 
driven, that shall make any given number of 
revolutions in the same time. 

kule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver 
by its number of revolutions, and divide the 
product by the number of required revolu- 
tions of the driven; the quotient will be its 
diametei. 



£Jx.— Diameter of driver (as before) 24 in. 
X revolutions 150 = 3,600. Number of revo- 
lutions of driven required = 300. Then 3.600 
•■^300 = 12 in. 

The rules following are but changes of the 
same, and will be readily understood from 
the foregoing examples. 

To ascertain the size of the driver: 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driven 
by the number of revolutions you wish to 
make, and divide the product by the required 
revolutions of the driver; the quotient will be 
the size of the driver. 

To ascertain the size of pulleys for givea 
speed : 

Rule. — Multiply all the diameters of the 
drivers together and all the diameters of the 
driven together; divide the drivers by the 
driven; the answer multiply by the known 
revolutions of main shaft. 

Paper, Wall. — The following table from 
the New York Newsdealer shows how many 
rolls of wall-paper are required to cover a 
room of the dimensions indicated by the fig- 
ures in the left-hand column, also the number 
of yards of border necessary 



Size of Room. 



7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

8X10 

8X10 

8X10 

8X10 

9X11 

9X11 

9X11 

9X11 

10X12 

10X12 

10X12 

10X12 ; 

11X12 

11X12 

11X12 

11X12 

12X13 

12X13 

12X13 

12X13 

12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 
12X15 or 13X14. 

13X15 

13X15 

13X15 

13X15 '. . 

14X16 

14X16 

14X16 

14X18 

14X18 

T4X18 

15X16 

15X17 





"o 


-oi 




°^ 


§52 


s-§ 


o« 


.d.-a 


•^ o 


•^.S 




■^6 




is 


=f2 


ffl 


Jz; 


iz; 


oi 


8 






6 


9 






7 


10 






8 


12 






10 


H 






7 


9 






8 


10 






9 


12 






11 


8 






8 


9 






10 


10 






11 


I'J 






13 


8 






9 


9 






10 


10 






11 


12 






13 


8 


2 


2 


8 


9 


2 


2 


9 


10 


2 


2 


10 


12 


2 


2 


13 


8 


2 


2 


8 


9 


2 


2 


10 


10 


2 


2 


11 


12 


2 


2 


14 


8 


2 


2 


10 


9 


2 


2 


11 


10 


2 


2 


12 


12 


2 


2 


15 


8 


2 


2 


10 


9 


2 


2 


11 


10 


2 . 


2 


13 


12 


2 


2 


16 


9 


2 


2 


12 


10 


2 


2 


14 


12 


2 


2 


17 


9 


2 


2 


13 


10 


2 


2 


15 


12 


2 


2 


19 


10 


2 


2 


15 


12 


2 


2 


19 



•o o 



, Deduct one-half '•oil of paper for each or- 
dinary door or wmtiuw extra — size 4X7 ieoi^ 



[741 



(Sheet Metal Gauge) 



UNITED STATES STANDARD GAUGE. 

For Sheet and Plate Iron and Steel. 





Thickness. 


Weight. 




Number of 
Gauge. 


" Approximate 
Thickness in 


Approximate 
Thickness in 


\Y;eight per 
Square Foot 


Weight per 
Square- Foot 


Nimiber of 
Gauge. 




Fractions of 


Decimal Parts 


in Ounces 


in Pounds 






an Inch. 


of an Inch. 


Avoirdupois. 


Avoirdupois. 




0000000 


1-2 


.5 ~ 


320 


20. 


0000000 


000000 


15-32 


. 46875 


300 


18.75 


000000 


00000 


7-16 


.4375 


280 


17.5 


00000 


0000 


13-32 


. 40625 


260 


16.25 


0000 


000 


3-8 


.375 


240 


15. 


000 


00 


11-32 


.34375 


220 


13.75 


00 





5-16 


.3125 


200 


12.5 





I 


9-32 


.28125 


180 


11.25 


I 


2 


17-64 


.265625 


170 


10.625 


2 


3 


1-4 


.25 


160 


10. 


3 


4 


15-64 


.234375 


150 


9.375 


4 


5 


7-32 


.21875 


140 


8.75 


5 


6 


13-64 


.203125 


130 


8.125 


6 


7 


3-16 


.1875 


120 


7.5 


7 


8 


11-64 


.171875 


110 


6.875 


8 


9 


5-32 


. 15625 


100 


6.25 


9 


10 


9-64 


.140625 


90 


5.625 


10 


11 


1-8 


.125 


80 


5. 


11 


12 


7-64 


. 109375 


70 


4.375 


12 


13 


3-32 


.09375 


60 


3.75 


13 


14 


5-64 


.078125 


50 


3.125 


14 


15 


9-128 


.0703125 


45 


2.8125 


15 


16 


1-16 


.0625 


40 


2.5 


16 


17» 


9-160 


.05625 


36 


2.25 


17 


18 


1-20 


.05 


32 


2.00 


18 


19 


7-160 


.04375 


28 


1.75 


19 


20 


3-80 


.0375 


24 


1.5 


20 


21 


11-320 


,034375 


22 


1.375 


21 


22 


1-32 


.03125 


20 


1.25 


22 


23 


9-320 


.028125 


18 


1.125 


23 


24 


1-40 


.025 


16 


1. 


24 


25 


7-320 


.021875 


14 


.875 


25 


26 


3-160 


.01875 


12 


.75 


26 


27 


11-640 


.0171875 


11 


.6875' 


27 


28 


1-64 


.015625 


10 


.625 


28 


29 


9-640 


.0140625 


9 


.5625 


29 


30 


1-80 


.0125 


8 


.6 


30 


31 


7-640 


.0109375 


7 


.4375 


31 


32 


13-1280 


.01015625 


H 


.40625 


32 


33 


3-320 


.009375 


6 


.375 


33 


34 


11-1280 


.00859375 


5i 


.34375 


34 


35 


5-640 


.0078125 


5 


.3125 


35 


36 


9-1280 


.00703125 


H 


.28125 


36 


37 


17-2560 


.006640625 


4i 


.265625 


37 


38 


1-160 


.00625 


4 


.25 


38 



ELECTRICAL 
Units of Measurement. — The three most 
commonly used units are: 

I. The unit of current, called the Ampere; 
II. The unit of potential, called the Volt; 
III. The unit of resistance, called the Ohm. 

For some purposes these quantities are sub- 
divided, thus in telegraphy the practical unit 
of current is the milli-ampere, i.e., one-thou- 
sandth of an ampere. In some cases it is con- 
venient to use multiples; insulation resist- 
ances are often expressed in terms of meg- 
ohms, i.e., a million ohms. The most com- 
monly used multiples are the following- 
I Megohm = 10^ ohms = I million ohms, 

1 Microhm = 10-^ ohm = 1 millionth of 

an ohm, 
1 Kilowatt = 10^ watts = 1 ,000 watts, 
1 Micro-ampere = 10-^ ampere = 1 millionth of 
an ampere. 



ENGINEERING. 

Ohm's Ijaw. — For steady currents the 
three quantities — current, potential and re- 
sistance — are connected together by the rela- 
tion discovered by Dr. Ohm, and called Ohm's 
Law. This law is stated thus 

where C= current (amperes); 

£J = difference of potential (volts): 
^ = resistance opposing the current 
(ohms). 
All the imits in scientific work are defined 
in terms of the fundamental units, which are 
Unit of length = 1 centimeter. 
* * ' mass = 1 gram. 
** " time =1 second. 
These are spoken of as the C.G.S. units, and 
in the actual determination of a standard 



[75] 



(Electrical Standards) 



ohm attempts have been made to obtain the 
scientific value as closely as possible. The 
first unit used as a standard was the British 
Association or B.A. unit coil. Messrs. Sie- 
mens also introduced a standard ohm, but 
both of these units differed from the true ohm 
as yp-ell as from each other. In order to 
avoid the consequent confusion, an interna- 
tional congress was held at Paris in 1893 to 
decide upon the standard values to be 
adopted. 

C.G.S. ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. 

TpE Ohm is represented by the resistance 
ofifered by a colunm of mercury — at the tem- 
perature of melting ice — 14.4521 grams in 
mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and 
of a length of 106.3 centimeters. 

The Ampeb-e is represented by the unvary- 
ing electric current which, when passed 
through a solution of nitrate of silver in 
water, deposits silver at the rate of 
0.001118 of a gram per second. 

The Volt is the electrical pressure which, 
if steadily applied to a conductor whose re- 
sistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 
1 ampere, and which is represented by 0.6974, 
oriSg^of the electrical pressure between the 
poles of the voltaic cell, known as Clark's cell, 
at a temperature of 15° C. (59° F.). 

As in many of the older books and early 
papers dealing with electrical matters the 
•older system of "units is used, the following 
table will be useful for ascertaining the rela- 
tive values of the quantities expressed: 



System. 



True Ohm 

Legal Ohm . . . . 

B.A. Ohm 

Siemens Ohm.. 



True 
Ohm. 



1.0000 
0.9975 
0.9863 
0.9408 



Legal 
Ohm. 



1.0025 
1.0000 
0.9889 
0.9434 



B.A. 

Ohm. 



Sie- 
mens 
Ohm. 



1.0138 1.0630 
1.0113 1.0600 
1 . 0000 1 . 0482 
0.95401 1.0000 



Unit of Quantity. — The quantity of elec- 
tricity that flows per second past a cross-sec- 
tion of a conductor carrying a current of one 
^ampere is a Coulomb. 

The practical unit is the quantity that 
flows per hour, and is measured in ampere- 
hours. 

TJntt of Capacity: The Fahad. — The 
•capacity of two conductors insulated from 
•each other is the number of coulombs of elec- 
tricity required to be given to one conductor, 
the other being supposed at zero potential, to 
produce a difference of pressure of 1 volt be- 
tween the two. The unit of capacity is 
called a "farad," and two conductors ar- 
ranged in a form known as a condenser of 1 
(arad capacity would be raised to a difference 
of pressure of 1 volt by a charge of 1 coulomb 
of electricity. The practical unit used, how- 



ever, has a capacity one-millionth of a farad— 
i.e., a microfarad. 

JotTLE. — When a power of one watt is being 
developed, the work done per second is some- 
times called a "Joule." Hence, one joule 
equals 0.7375 foot-lb., and 

1 watt-second == 1 joule. 

1 watt-minute =60 joviles. 

1 horse-power hour = 1 ,980,000 foot^lbs. 

1 horse-power hour = 2,685,600 joules. 

(W. E. Ayrton.) 

Watt.-;-A "watt" is the power developed 
in a circuit when one ampere flows through 
it, and when the potential difference at its ter- 
minals is one volt ; hence the number of watts 
developed in any circuit equals the product of 
the current in amperes flowing through it into 
the potential difference at its terminals in 
volts. Therefore 

1 watt is the power developed when 44.25 
foot-lbs, of work are done per minute. 

1 watt is the power developed when 0.7375 
foot-lb. of work is done per second. 

1 watt equals yisth of a horse-power. 

{W. E. Ayrton.') 

Calohie. — The amount of heat required to 
raise 1 kilogram of water 1° C. is the unit of 
heat employed on the Continent. 

1 calorie = 4,200 joules = 42 X ]0» ergs. 

1 joule = 0.000238 calories. 

Induction: The Henry. — The induction 
in a circuit when the difference of electrical 
pressure induced in the circuit js 1 volt, 
while the inducing current varies at the rate 
of 1 ampere per second, is called a "Henry." 

THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SYSTEM OF 
ELECTRIC UNITS. 

Unit of Current, — That current which, 
flowing in a conductor 1 centimeter long, and 
of 1 centimeter radius, produces at the center 
of the arc a magnetic field of unit strength. 

This unit is ten times the ampere. 

Unit of Potential. — Unit difference of 
potential exists between the ends of a con- 
ductor, when the expenditure of 1 erg per 
second will cause unit current to flow. 

This E.M.F. is equal to one hundred- 
millionth of a volt. 

Note. — The erg= work done by a force of 1 
dyne through a distance of one centimeter 
= 0.001019 gramme— cent = 0.00000007386 foot- 
lb. (London). 

Unit of Resistance is that resistance 
which requires unit difference of potential to 
cause unit current to flow. 

This resistance is 1,000-millionth of an 
ohm. ' 

For ready reference the units most fre- 
quently used in practice are tabulated below„ 
together with their value in C.G.S. absolute 
units. 



Electrical Quantity. 


Name of Unit. 


Dimensions of Unit. 


Value in C.G.S. Units. 




Ohm 




10^ C.G.S. units. 


Current . . 


Ampere. . . 


10-1 '• 


Electrical pressure, .... 

Energy. ., 

Capacity 


Volt 


108 •• 




107 •• 


Farad . . 


10-9 •• 


C^apacity 


Microfarad 

Watt 


10-15 •• 


Power. ', . . . . 


107 •• •• 


Power 

Work 


Kilowatt. 

Watt-hour 

Kilowatt-hour. . . . 


lOia •• 
10^X36 " 


Work. 


1012X36 



r76i 



(Units of Force) 



(Resistance of Metals) 



UNITS OF FORCE, PRESSURE, WORK, 
POWER. 

Force. — 1 dyne =thait force which acting 
on 1 gramme for 1 second gives it a velocity of 
1 centimeter per second (being absolute unit 
of force in the C.G.S. system, independent of 
local variations of gravity). 

1 ffram weight = at Paris, 980 dynes; at 
London, 981 dynes; at Glasgow, 982 dynes. 

1 pound weight =453.6 grams weight; 
= at Paris, 444,528 dynes; at London, 444,987 
dynes. 

Pressure. — 1 pound per square inch = 0.0703 
kilogram per square centimeter. 

1 kilogram per, square centimeter = 14.2 lbs. 
per square inch. 

1 atmosphere = Z0 in. of mercury = nearly 
76 centimeters of mercury = nearly 15 lbs. per 
square inch = nearly 1,000,000 dynes per 
square centimeter. 

The following will serve to illustrate the 
magnitude of some of these units: 

10 ft. of pure copper wire 0.01 in, diameter 
is almost exactly equal to 1 ohm. 

The current used in an ordinary incandes- 
cent lamp of 16 candle-power is about 0.6 
ampere. 

The electrical pressure of the terminals of 
the Cell usually used for electric bells (Le- 
clanche) is about 1.4 volt. 

1 watt = about 44^^ foot-lbs. per minute. 

746 watts = 1 horse-power 

1 kilowatt = about ij horse-power. 

An easy way to convert watts into the 
equivalent horse-power is to mark off three 
places and add one-third : Thus, 

What is the equivalent horse-power of 
27,000 watts? 

Set off three decimal places 27 . 000 

Add one-third 9.000 



And the horse-power required ■■ 



36 



Find the equivalent number of watts of 48 
electrical horse-power? 



Multiply the horse-power by 1,000. thus 

48X1,000 =48,000 

Subtract one-quarter, "S^ =12.000 

And the required number of watts = 36,000 



RESISTANCE. 

CoNDtrcTORS. — Nearly all substances as 
they occur in nature conduct electricity — i.e., 
if the substance is joined to a source of elec- 
trical energy, a magnetic field is created 
around it. Roughly, three groups of con- 
ductors may be formed, but of very varying 
degree: 1st, good conductors, pure metals, 
and alloys of metals; 2d, at a long interval, 
solutions of electrolytes — i.e., solutions ca- 
pable of being decomposed by the passage of 
an electric current through them; and 3d, 
very bad conductors, such as India rubber, 
ebonite, shellac, sulphur, glass, slate, mar- 
ble, stoneware, mica, dry wood and paper, 
animal fibers (silk, wool, furs), petroleum oil, 
paraffin wax, ozokerit, pitch, bitumen, etc. 
Usually, in practical work, the first class is 
spoken of as conductors, and the third class 
as insulators. 

Resistance. — The resistance of a con- 
ductor is 

(a) Directly proportional to us length; 
(6) Inversely proportional to its cross-sec- 
tional area; (c) Directly proportional to its 
specific resistance; (d) and usually increases 
with its temperature. 

^ SpecifiO Rfsistance. — The specific re- 
sistance of a substance is usually staled as 
the resistance between the faces of a cube of 
the substance, 1 centimeter in length and 1 
square centimeter in cross-sectional area. 

The law of resistance may be stated thus, 
neglecting the effect of temperature: 

R = ^; 
where * 

R = the resistance in ohms ; 
I = the length of conductor; 
8 =the cross-sectional area of the conductor; 
p =the specific resistance of the material. 



RESISTANCE OF METALS AND ALLOYS (CHEMICALLY PURE) AT 32* F. 
IN STANDARD OHMS. 





(p) 
Specific 
Resistance 
Cubic Cen- 
timeter , 
Microhms. 


Resistance per 




Metal. 


Foot, 
-uku Inch 
Diameter. 


Meter, 1 
Millimeter 
Diameter. 


Relative 
Resist- 
ance. 




1.5006 
1.6298 
1.61966 
1.73054 
2.0531 
2.0896 
2.9055 
5.6127 
9.03.52 
9.6933 
19.584 
20.886 

24.329 

75 

96 


Ohms. 
9.0283 
9.8028 
10.2063 
10.4117 
12.3522 
12.5692 
17.4825 
33.7614 
54.3517 
58.308 
117.79 
125.62 

146.36 
447.50 
570.84 


Ohms. 

0.01911 

0.02074 

0.02160 

0.02204 

0.02614 

0.0266 

0.037 

0.071 

0.115 

0.123 

0.249 

0.266 

0.310 

0.95 

1.208 


1.000 




1.086 


Copper, annealed 


1.130 
1.153 




1 369 


** hard-drawn ... 


1 393 




1.935 




3 741 


Platinum, annealed ... 


6 022 




6.460 


Lead, pressed. ... 


13 05 


German silver, hard or annealed. 


13 92 


Platinum, silver alloy (2 parts silver and 1 

part platinum), hard or annealed 

Manganese steel . . 


16.2? 
49 7 


Mercury , 


62:73> 



[77] 



(Conauctivlty) 



(Resistance of Wire) 



APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE VARIA- 
TION IN RESISTANCE AT 
ABOUT 20° C. (68° F.) 



Metal or Alloy. 


1°C. 


1«> 
Per 

1°F. 


Platinum Silver ( 1 pt. Plati- 
num to 2 pts. Silver), hard 
or annealed 


0.031 

0.044 
0.072 
0.354 
0.365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 


017 


German Silver, hard or an- 
nealed 


024 


Mercury 


0.040 
0.197 
203 


Bismuth, pressed. 

Gold, annealed. . 


Zinc, pressed 


203 


Tin, • ' 


203 


Silver, annealed 


209 


Lead, pressed 


215 


Copper, annealed 


238 


Iron (about) ; 


0.278 



— Practical Engineer's Electrical Pocket-Book 
and Diary, 



HEAT AND ELECTRICAL. 
CONDUCTIVITY. 



Substancss. 


Heat 
Conductiv- 

ity. 


Electrical 
Conductiv- 
ity. 


Silver. . . 


100.0 
73.6 
53.2 
23.6 
19.9 
14.5 
12.0 
11.9 
8.5 
6.4 
6.3 
1.8 


100.0 
73.3 
58.5 
21.5 

22.6 


Copper 


Gold. ... 


Brass 


Zinc 

Tin. 


Steel. 


Iron. , 


13.0 
10.7 
10.3 


Lead 


Platinum. . . . 


Palladium 


Bismuth. . 


1 9 







RESISTANCE AND WEIGHT TABLE. 

American gauge for cotton and silk-covered and bare copper wire.— The resistances ar^' 
calculated for pure copper wire. 

The number of feet to the pound is only approximate for insulated wire. 



No. 


Diameter. 


Feet per Pound. 


Resistance, Naked Copper. 


Cotton 
Covered. 


Silk 
Covered. 


Naked. 


Ohms per 
1,000 Feet. 


Ohms per 
Mile. 


Feet per 
Ohm. 


Ohms per 
Povmd. 


8 


.12849 






20 


6259 


3.3 
4.1 
4.4 
6.4 
8.3 


1600 
1272 
1185 
798 
633 


.0125 
.0197 
.0270 
.0501 
079 


9 


.11443 






25 


7892 


10 


.10189 






32 


8441 


11 


.09074 






40 


1 254 


12 


.08084 


42 


46 


50 


1.580 


13 


.07196 


55 


60 


64 


1.995 


JO. 4 


504 


127 


14 


.06408 


68 


75 


80 


2.504 


13.2 


400 


.200 


15 


.05707 


87 


95 


101 


3.172 


16.7 


316 


.320 


16 


.05082 


IW 


120 


128 


4.001 


23 


230 


512 


17 


.04525 


140 


150 


161 


5.04 


26 


198 


811 


18 


.0403 


175 


190 


203 


6.36 


33 


157 


1 29 


19 


.03539 


220 


240 


256 


8.25 


43 


121 


2 11 


20 


.03196 


280 


305 


324 


10.12 


53 


99 


3 27 


21 


.02846 


360 


390 


408 


12.76 


68 


76.5 


5 20 


22 


.02535 


450 


490 


514 


16.25 


85 


61 8 


8 35 


23 


. 02257 


560 


615 


649 


20.30 


108 


48.9 


13.3 


24 


.0201 


715 


775 


818 


25.60 


135 


39.0 


20.9 


25 


.0179 


910 


990 


1,030 


32.2 


170 


31.0 


33.2 


26 


.01594 


1.165 


1,265 


1,300 


40.7 


214 


24.6 


52.9 


27 


.01419 


1,445 


1,570 


• 1,640 


51.3 


270 


19.5 


84.2 


28 


.01264 


1,810 


1,970 


2,070 


64.8 


343 


15.4 


134 


29 


.01126 


2,280 


2,480 


2,617 


81.6 


432 


12.2 


213 


30 


.01002 


2.805 


3,050 


3.287 


103 


538 


9.8 


338 


31 


.00893 


3,605 


3,920 


4,144 


130 


685 


7.7 


539 


32 


.00795 


4.535 


4.930 


5,227 


164 


865 


6.1 


856 


33 


.00708 




6,200 


6.590 


206 


1033 
1389 
1820 
2200 


4.9 
3.8 

2.9 
2.4 


1357 
2166 
3521 
5469 


34 


.0063 




7.830 


8,330 


260 


35 


.00501 




9,830 


10,460 


328 


36 


.005. 




12.420 


13.210 


414 



CTB] 



(Weight of Wire) 



(Wire Guages) 





WEIGHT 


IN POUNDS PER 


MILE 


OF COPPER WIRE. 




Num- 


Roeb- 


Bir- 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


English 
Legal 


Num- 


Roeb- 


Bir- 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


English 
Legal 


ber. 


ling. 


ham. 


Stand- 
ard. 


ber. 


ling. 


ham. 


Stand- 
ard. 


0000 


2.466 


3,286 


3,375 


2,555 


14 


102 


110 


65 


102 


000 


2,092 


2,884 


2,677 


2,210 


15 


83 


83 


52 


83 


00 


1,750 


2,305 


2,123 


1,933 


16 


64 


68 


41 


65 





1,504 


1,846 


1,684 


1,682 


17 


47 


53i 


33 


50 


1 


1,278 


1,437 


1.335 


1,437 


18 


35 


•38 


26 


37 


2 


1,104 


1,287 


1,058 


1,216 


19 


27 


28 


20i 


26 


3 


950 


1,071 


839 


1,012 


20 


m 


m 


16i 


20- 


4 


808 


904 • 


665 


860 


21 


16i 

m 


16i 


13 


16 • 


5 


G84 


773 


528 


718 


22 


12^ 


lOi 


12^ 
H 


6 


588 


657 


418 


588 


23 


10- 


lOi 


8| 


7 


500 


517 


332 


495 


24 


8- 


7i 


el 


!'■ 


8 


419 


435 


263 


409 


25 


6- 


Qi 


5i 


el 


9 


350 


350 


209 


332 


26 


5 


5 


4 


5 


10 


291 


287 


166 


263 


27 


4i 


4 


n 


4 


11 


230 


230 


131 


215 


28 


4 


3i 


3i 


12 


176 


190 


104 


173 


29 


3f 


if 


2 


3 


13 


135 


144 


83 


135 


30 


3i 


If 


n 



WIRE 


GAUGES. IN 


DECIMAL PARTS 


OF AN INCH. 


Num- 






Bir- 


Eng- 


Old 


ber of 


Roeb- 
ling. 


Brown 


ming- 


lish 


Eng- 


Wire 


& 


ham 


Legal 


lish, 


Gauge. 


Sharpe. 


or 


Stand- 


or Lon- 








Stubs. 


ard. 


don. 


000000 


0.46 






0.464 




00000 


0.43 
0.393 






0.432 
0.4 




0000 


0.46 


0.454 


0.454 


000 


0.362 


0.40964 


0.425 


0.372 


0.425 


00 


0.331 


0.3648 


0.380 


0.348 


0.38 





0.307 


0.32495 


0.340 


0.324 


0.34 


1 


0.283 


0.2893 


0.3 


0.3 


0.3 


2 


0.263 


0.25763 


0.284 


0.276 


0.284 


3 


0.244 


0.22942 


0.259 


0.252 


0.259 


4 


0.225 


0.20431 


0.23S 


0.232 


0.238 


5 


0.207 


0.18194 


0.22 


0.212 


0.22 


6 


0.192 


0.16202 


0.203 


0.192 


0.203 


7 


0.177 


0.14428 


0.18 


0.176 


0.18 


8 


0.162 


0.12849 


0.165 


0.16 


0.165 


9 


0.148 


0.11443 


0.148 


0.144 


.148 


10 


0.135 


0.10189 


0.134 


0.128 


0.134 


11 


0.12 


0.09074 


0.12 


0.116 


3.12 


12 


0.105 


0.08081 


0.109 


0.104 


0.109 


13 


0.092 


0.07196 


0.095 


0.092 


0.095 


14 


0.08 


0.06408 


0.083 


0.08 


0.083 


15 


0.072 


0.05706 


0.072 


0.072 


0.072 


16 


0.083 


0.05082 


0.065 


0.064 


0.065 


17 


0.054 


0.04525 


0.058 


0.056 


0.058 


18 


0.047 


0.0403 


0.049 


0.048 


0;049 


19 


0.041 


0.03589 


0.042 


0.04 


0.04 


20 


0.035 


0.03196 


0.035 


0.036 


0.035 


21 


0.032 


0.02846 


0.032 


0.032 


0.0315 


22 


0.028 


0.02534 


0.028 


0.028 


0.0295 


23 


0.025 


0.02257 


0.025 


0.024 


0.027 


24 


0.023 


0.0201 


0.022 


0.022 


0.025 


25 


0.02 


0.0179 


0.02 


0.02 


0.023 


26 


0.018 


0.01594 


0.018 


0.018 


0.0205 


27 


0.017 


0.01419 


0.016 


0.016^ 


0.01875 


28 


0.016 


0.01264 


0.014 


0.0148 


0.0165 


29 


0.015 


0.01125 


0.013 


0.0136 


0.0155 


30 


0.014 


01002 


0.012 


0.012^ 


0.01375 


31 


0.0135 


0.00893 


0.010 


0.0116 


0.01225 


32 


0.013 


0.00795 


0.009 


0.0108 


0.01125 


33 


0.011 


0.00708 


0.008 


0.01 


0.01025 


34 


0.01 


0.0063 


0.007 


0.0092 


0.0095 


35 


0.0095 


0.00561 


0.005 


0.008-1 


0.009 


36 


0.009 


0.005 


0.004 


0.0076 


0.0075 



TABLE INDICATING SIZE, WEIGHT, 

AND LENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL 

WIRE. 



Gauge 
Num- 
bers. 


Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 


Wight 
of 100 
Feet. 
Lbs. 


Wight 

of One 

Mile, 

Lbs. 


Feet 

in 2000 

Lbs. 


Area. 

Square 

Ins 


3-0 


.362 


34.73 


1834 


5,759 


.102921 


2-0 


.331 


29.04 


1533 


6,886 


.086049 


1-0 


.307 


25.00 


1318 


8,00c 


.074023 


1 


.283 


21.23 


1121 


9,425 


.062901 


2 


.263 


18.34 


968 


10,905 


.054325 


3 


.244 


15.78 


833 


12,674 


.046759 


4 


.225 


13.39 


707 


14.936 


.039760 


5 


.207 • 


11.35 


599 


17.621 


.033653 


6 


.192 


9.73 


514 


20,555 


.028952 


7 


.177 


8.30 


439 


24,906 


024605 


8 


.162 


6.96 


367 


28,734 


.020612 


9 


.148 


5.80 


306 


34,483 


.017203 


10 


.135 


4.83 


255 


41.408 


.014313 


11 


,120 


3.82 


202 


52,356 


.011309 


12 


.105 


2.92 


154 


68.493 


.008659 


13 


.092 


2.24 


118 


89.286 


.006647 


14 


.080 


1.69 


89 


118,343 


.005026 


15 


.072 


1.37 


72 


145,985 


.004071 


16 


.063 


1.05 


55 


190.476 


.003117 


17 


.054 


0.77 


41 


259, 74C 


.002290 


18 


.047 


0.58 


31 


344,827 


.001734 


19 


.041 


0.45 


24 


444,444 


.001320 


20 


.035 


0.32 


17 


625,000 


.000962 


21 


.032 


0.27 


14 


740,741 


.000804 


22 


.028 


0.21 


11 


952,381 


.000615 


23 


,025 
.023 
.020 


0.175 
0.140 
0.116 


9.24 

7.39 

. 6.124 




.000491 


24 




.000415 


25 




.000314 


26 


.018 

.017 

.016 

.015 

.014 

.0135 

.013 

.011 

.010 

.0095 

.009 


0.093 
0.083 
0.074 
0.061 
0.054 
0.050 
0.046 
0.037 
0.030 
0.025 
0.021 


4.91 

4.382 

3.907 

3.22 

2.851 

2.64 

2.428 

1.953 

1.584 

1.32 

1.161 




.000254 


27 




000227 


28 




.000201 


29 




.CC0176 


30 




.000154 


31 




000143 


32 




.000132 


33 




.000095 


34 




000078 


35 




.000071 


36 




.000064 



179] 



(Electrical Horse Power) 



(Electric Batteries) 



ELECTRICAL HORSE-POWER. 



Calculated from 



EXC 

746 * 



a 






E.M.F. in 


Volts 














10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


5 


0.06 


0.13 


0.20 


0.28 


0.33 


0.40 


0.47 


0.53 


0.60 


0.67 


0.73 


0.80 


87 


93 


1.0 

2.0 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 
10 


lU 


0.13 


0.28 


0.40 


0.53 


0.67 


0.80 


0.93 


1.07 


1.2 


1.3 


1.4 


16 


1 6 


1 9 


20 


0.28 


0.53 


0.80 


1.07 


1.3 


1.6 


1.9 


2.1 


2.4 


2.7 


2.9 


3.2 


35 


3 7 


3U 


0.40 


0.80 


1.2 


1.6 


2.0 


2.4 


2.8 


3.2 


3,6 


40 


4.4 


4.8 


5.2 


5 6 


40 


0.63 


1.0/ 


1.6 


2.1 


2.6 


3.2 


3.7 


4.2 


4.8 


5.3 


5.9 


6.4 


6<9 


7 5 


bU 


0.6 V 


1.30 


2.0 


2.6 


3.3 


4.0 


4.6 


5.4 


6.0 


6,7 


7.4 


8.0 


8.7 


9 4 


60 


0.80 


1.6 


2.4 


3.2 


4.0 


4.8 


5.6 


6.4 


7.2 


8.0 


8.8 


9.6 


10.4 


11.2 


12 


70 


0.93 
1.07 


1.9 


2.8 


3.V 


4.6 


6.6 


6.5 


7.5 


8.4 


9.4 


10.3 


11.2 


12.3 


13 1 


14 


80 


2.1 


3.2 


4.2 


6.4 


6.4 


7.5 


8.5 


9.6 


10.7 


11.8 


12.8 


13.9 


15.0 


16 


90 


1.2 


2.4 


3.6 


4.8 


6.0 


V.2 


8.4 


9.6 


10.8 


12.0 


13.2 


14.4 


15:6 


16 9 


18 


100 


1.3 


2.V 


4.0 


6.3 


6.7 


8.0 


9.4 


10.7 


12.0 


13.4 


14.7 


16.0 


17.4 


18.7 


20 


110 


1.4 


2.9 


4.4 


6.9 


7.4 


8.8 


10.3 


11.8 


13.2 


14.7 


16.2 


17.6 


19.1 


20 6 


22 


120 


1.6 


3.2 


4.8 


6.4 


8.0 


9.6 


11.2 


12.8 


14.4 


16.0 


17.6 


19.2 


20.9 


22 5 


24 


130 


1.6 


3.6 


6.2 


6.9 


8.7 


10.4 


12.3 


13.9 


15.6 


17,4 


19.1 


20.9 


22.6 


24 4 


26 


140 


1.9 


3.; 


6.6 


V.6 


9.4 


11.2 


13.1 


15.0 


16.9 


18.7 


20.6 


22.5 


24.4 


26 2 


28 


160 


2.0 


4.0 


6.0 


8.0 


10.0 


12.0 


14.0 


16.0 


18.0 


20.0 


22.0 


24.0 


26.0 


28.0 


30.0 



E.H.P. on current line, under E.M.F. 



COMPOSITION AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF BATTERY CELLS. 



Name. 



Clark. 

Daniell. 

Groves. 

Bunsen. 

Leclanche. 



Potash - bichro- 
mate. 



Electrodes. 



Solutions. 



Pure mercury and 
pure zinc. 



Copper and zinc. 

Platinum and zinc 
Carbon and zinc. 
Carbon and zinc. 

Carbon and zinc. 



The mercury is covered with a 
paste of mercurous sulphate 
and a saturated solution of zinc 
sulphate, in which is placed the 
rod of zinc. 

The zinc is immersed m a solu- 
tion of zinc sulphate, and the 
copper in a solution of copper 
sulphate. 

The platinum is immersed in a 
strong nitric acid, and the zinc 
in dilute sulphuric acid. 

The carbon in nitric acid, and 
the zinc in dilute sulphuric 
acid. 

The carbon is packed in a porous 
pot with peroxide of manga- 
nese and broken gas carbon. 
The zinc is immersed in solu- 
tion of sal ammoniac. 

The best solution is 1 lb. of potas- 
sium-bichromate, 2 lbs. strong 
sulphuric aeid sp. gr. 1.836, and 
12 lbs. water, in which both 
electrodes are immersed, the 
zinc being withdrawn when 
the cell is not in use. 



E.M.F. 



1.434 at 15° C. at any 
temp <°C. itis 

1.434[l-.0008«°-1.5°)l. 

Depends upon the den- 
sities of the solutions ; 
it varies from 1.07 to 
1.14 volts. 

About 1.93 volts. 



About 1.74 volts. 



About 1.47 volts; but is 
quickly reduced if 
used to send a strong 
current. 

About 2 volts; but is 
quickly reduced if em- 
ployed to send a strong 
current. 



-Practical Engineers' Electrical Pocket Book, 



[80] 



(Interest Tables) 



(Roman Notation) 



THE AMOUNT OF ONE DOLLAR AT COMPOUND INTEREST. 



'•'End of 


3 


3i 


4 


Per Cent. 


5 


6 


7 


' Year. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


1 


$1.03 


$1.04 


$1.04 . 


$1.05 


~'$\705~ 


$1.06 


$1.07 


2 


1.06 


1.07 


1.08 


1.09 


1.10 


1.12 


1.14 


3 


1.Q9 


1.11 


1.12 


1.14 


1.16 


1.19 


1.23 


4 


1.13 


1.15 


1.17 


1.19 


1.22 


1.26 


1.31 


5 


•1.16 


1.19 


1.22 


1.25 


1.28 


1.34 


1.40 


6 


1.19 


1.23 


1.27 


1.30 


1.34 


1.42 


1.50 


7 


1.23 


1.27 


1.32 


1.36 


1.41 


1.50 


li61 


8 


1.27 


1.32 


1.37 


1.42 


1.48 


1.59 


1.72 


9 


1.30 


1.36 


1.42 


1.49 


1.55 


1.69 


1.84 


10 


1.34 


1.41 


1.48 


1.55 


1.63 


1.79 


1.97 


U 


1.38 


1.46 


1.54 


1.62 


1.71 


1.90 


2.10 


a2 


4.. 43 


1.51 


1.60 


1.70 


1.80 


2.01 


2.25 


13 


1.47 


1.56 


1.67 


1.77 


1.89 


2.13 


2.41 


14 


1.51 


1.62 


1.73 


1.85 


1.98 


2.26 


2.58 


15 


1.56 


1.68 


1.80 


1.94 


2.08 


2.40 


2.76 


16 


1.60 


1.73 


1.87 


2.02 


2.18 


2.54 


2.95 


17 


1.65 


1.79 


1.95 


2.11 


2.29 


2.69 


3.16 


18 


1.70 


1.86 


2:03 


2.21 


2.41 


2.85 


3.38 


19 


1>75 


1.92 


2.11 


2.31 


2.53 


3.03 


3.62 


20 


1.81 


1.99 


2.19 


2.41 


2.65 


3.21 


3.87 


21 


1.80 


2.06 


■2.28 


2.52 


2.79 


3.40 


4.14 


22 


1.92 


2.13 


2.37 


2.63 


2.93 


3.60 


4.43 


23 


1.97 


2.21 


2.46 


2.75 


3.07 


3.82 


4.74 


24 


2.03 


2.28 


2.56 


2.88 


3.23 


4.05 


5.07 


25 


2.09 


2.36 


2.67 


3.01 


3.39 


4.29 


5.43 


26 


2.16 


2.45 


2.77 


3.14 


3.56 


4.55 


5.81 


27 


2.22 


2.53 


2.88 . 


3.28 


3.73 


4.82 


0.21 


28 


2.29 


2.62 


3.0O 


3.43 . 


3.92 


5.11 


6.65 


29 


2 36 


2.71 


3.12 


3.58 


4.12 


5.42 


7.11 


30 


2.43 


2.81 


3.24 


3.75 


4.32 


5.74 


7.61 


31 


2.50 


2.91 


3.37 


3.91 


4.54 


6.09 


8.15 


32 


2.58 


3.01 


3.51 


4.09 


4.76 


6.45 


8.72 


33 


2.65 


3.11 . 


3.65 


4.27 


5.00 


6.84 


9.33 


34 


2.73 


3.22 


3.79 


4.47 


5.25 


7.25 


9.98 


35 


2.81 


3.33 


3.95 


4.67 


5.52 


7.69 


10.68 


36 


2.90 


'3.45 


4.10 


4.88 


5.79 


8.15 


11.42 


37 


2.99 


3.57 


4.27 


5.10 


6.08 


8.64 


12.22 


38 


3.07 


3.70 


4.44 


5.33 


6.39 


9.15 


13.08 


39 


3,17 


3.83 


4.62 


5.57 


6.70 


.9.70 


13.99 


40 


3.26 


3.96 


4.80 


5.82 


7.04 


10.29 


14.97 


41 


3.36 


4.10 


4.99 


6.08 


7.39 


10.90 


16.02 


42 


3.46 


4.24 


5.19 


6.35 


7.76 


11.56 


17.14 


43 


3.56 


4.39 


5.40 


6.64 


8.15 


12.25 


18.34 


44 


3.67 


4.54 


5.62 


6.94 


8.56 


12.99 


19.63 


45 


3.78 


4.70 


5.84 


7.25 


8.99 


13.76 


21.00 


46 


3.90 


4.87 


6.07 


7.57 


9.43 


14.59 


22.47 


47 


4.01 


5.04 


6.32/ 


7.92 


9.91 


15.47 


24.05 


45 


4.13 


5.21 


6.57 


8.27 


10.40 


16.39 


25.73 


49 


4.26 


5.40 


6.83 


8.64 


10.92 


17.38 


27.53 


50 


4.38 


5.58 


7.11 


9.03 


11.47 


18.42 


29.46 



1=1. 

2 = IL 

3 = 1IL 

4 = IV. 

5 = V. 

6 = VL 

7=vn. 

8 = VI1L 

9 = IX. 
10 = X. 
20 = XX. 
30 = XXX. 
40 = XL. 
50 = L. 

60 = LX. 
70 = LXX. 
80 = LXXX. 



ROMAN NOTATION. 



90^ 

100 

500^ 

1,000 

2,000^ 

5,000: 

6.000 

10,000 : 

50,000 : 

60,000 

100,000 ■■ 

1.000,000 



= XC. 

= C 

= D, or Lo. 
= M. orCO. 
==MM, or IIOOO. 
= V. or Loo. 
= VI, or MMM. 

= X, orCoO. 
= L^or LOOO. 
= LX, orMMMO. 
= C,orCOOO. 
= M, orCOOOO. 



2.000.000 = MM. or MMOOO- 
A line over a number increases it l.OOd 
times. 



rsn 



(Height and Weight) 



(Mortality Table) 



STANDARD TABLE OF HEIGHT AND WEIGHT. 





— 


Weight. 




Maximum. 


Standard. 


Minimum. 


4 fept. 10 inches ... 


150 
160 
167 
174 
181 
188 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 
255 


105 
110 
115 
120 
125 
130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 


83 


4 • 


11 *' 


87 


5 ' 




92 


5 • 


1 ' • 


96 


5 ' 


2 " 


100 


>i • 


3 " . 


104 


5 •' 


4 " 


108 


«> • 


5 


112 


5 ' 


6 " 


115 


5 • 


7 


120 


5 • 


8 " 


125 


5 • 

5 • 


9 •• 

10 •• 


130 
135 


•5 ' 


11 '• 


140 


6 ' 




145 


fi • 


1 " 


150 


fi • 


2 " 


155 


fi • 


3 " . . . ... 


160 


6 • 


4 *• 


165 



-Table furnished by F. L. Hoffman, Insurance Statistician. 



THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE TABLE OF MORTALITY. 





Expectation 


Number 




Expectation 


Number 


Age. 


of Life in 


Dying in 


Age. 


of Life in 


Dying in 




Years. 


Each 1,000. 




Years. 


Each 1,000. 


20 


42.20 


7.81 


60 


14.10 


26.69 


21 


41.53 


7.86 


61 


13.47 


28.88 


22 


40.85 


7.91 


62 


12.86 


31.29 


23 


40.17 


7.96 


63 


12.26 


33.94 


24 


39.49 


8.01 


64 


11.67 


36.87 


25 


38.81 


8.07 


65 


11.10 


40.13 


26 


38.12 


8.13 


'66 


10.54 


43.71 


27 


37.43 


8.20 


67 


10.00 


47.65 


28 


36.73 


8.26 


68 


9.47 


52.00 


29 


36.03 


8.35 


69 


8.97 


56.76 


30 


35.33 


8.43 


70 


8.48 


61.99 


31 


34.63 


8.51 


71 


8.00 


67.67 


32 


33.92 


8.61 


72 


7.55 


73.73 


33 


33.21 


8.72 


73 


7.11 


80.18 


34 


32.50 


8.83 


74 


6.68 


87.03 


35 


31.78 


8.95 


75 


6.27 


94.37 


36 


31.07 


9.09 


76 


5.88 


102.31 


37 


30.35 


9.23 


77 


5.49 


111.06 


38 


29.62 


9.41 


78 


5.11 


120.83 


39 


28.90 


9.59 


79 


4.74 


131.73 


40 


28.18 


9.79 


80 


4.39 


144 47 


41 


27.45 


10.01 


81 


4.05 


158.61 


42 


26.72 


10.25 


82 


3.71 


174.30 


43 


26.00 


10.52 


83 


3.39 


191.56 


44 


25.27 


10.83 


84 


3.08 


211.36 


45 


24.54 


11.16 


85 


2.77 


235.55 


46 


23.81 


11.56 


86 


2.47 


265.68 


47 


23.08 


12.00 


87 


2.18 


303.02 


48 


22.36 


12.51 


88 


1.91 


346.69 


49 


21.63 


13.11 


89 


1.66 


595.86 


50 


20.91 


13.78 


90 


1.42 


454.55 


51 


20.20 


14.54 


91 


1.19 


532.47 


52 


19.49 


15.39 


92 


.98 


634.26 


53 


18.79 


16.33 


93 


.80 


734.18 


54 


18.09 


17.40 


94 


.64 


857.14 


55 


17.40 


18.57 


95 


.50 


1000.00 


56 


16.72 


19.89 








57 


16.05 


21.34 








58 


15.39 


22.94 








59 


14.74 


24.72 









[82] 



PART II. 



Chemical Manipulatioa 




Chemical Operations are Best Carried on With Proper Equipment 




A Modern Laboratory Equipped for Analytical Work 



CHEMICAL MAlS^IPULATIOlsrS 



The proper preparation and manipulation of chemical and other substances 
is of paramount importance and much of the non-success of amateurs may be 
laid to this lack of knowledge. Much of the apparatus required can be con- 
structed at home, but glassware of convenient shapes should be purchased from 
dealers in chemical apparatus. It will pay in the long run to have good supplies 
from reliable houses. A fairly good little laboratory for making various articles 
given in the formulas would cost from $50,00 to $100.00. Of course, where the 
manufacture of an article is to be carried on commercially a special plant is 
needed, much of which can be supplied by the chemical supply houses noted 
above. A request to the publishers of 'this book will bring a list of dealers in 
such lines. Addresses must necessarily be excluded in a work of reference 
which is of permanent value. A catalogue of chemicals should be at the right 
hand of all experimenters. The number of rare things hard to get at the ordi- 
nary drug store v/hich they carry is very considerable, such as agar agar, 
alizarin, aloes, amber, aniline colors, animal charcoal, aqua regia, asbestoSj 
Canada balsam, banana oil, barium, Brunswick black, Burgundy pitch, etc., to 
only enumerate a few titles out of the first two letters of the alphabet. The prices 
of a few are noted a little further on. So far as possible always strive to deal 
with these chemical houses, as this will insure good materials, without which no 
success is possible. Until you wish to make an article on a commercial scale 
always buy the most expensive and best materials; after success has been 
obtained it is fairly safe to use cheaper materials if the skill which has been 
attained is sufficient to make a superior product with more economical raw 
materials. 

The entire subject of manipulation has been divided as follows: 



LABORATORY 
I 
COMMINUTION 

SLICING 

RASPING 

CONTUSION 

GRINDING 

PULVERIZING 

TRITURATION 

PORPHYRIZATION 

SIFTING 

LEVIGATION 

GRANULATION 

ELUTRIATION 

PULVERIZATION BY INTERVEN- 
TION 

II 
SOLUTION AND EXTRACTION 

EXPRESSION 

MACERATION 

DECOCTION 

INFUSION 

DIGESTION 

DESSICATION 



OPERATIONS 

III 
VAPORIZATION 
EVAPORATION 
DISTILLATION 

IV 
PRECIPITATION AND SEPARA- 
TION 
PRECIPITATION 
STRAINING 
CLARIFICATION 
CENTRIFUGATION 
WASHING 
DECANTATION 
PERCOLATION 
FILTRATION 
PRECIPITATION 
CRYSTALLIZATIOJX. 
GRANULATION 
DIALYSIS 
DECOLORIZATION 
EMULSIFICATION 



[85] 



( Classification ) 


(Technical Substances) 


V 


CARBONIZATION 


HEAT TREATMENT OF SOLIDS 


REDUCTION 


IGNITION 


TORREFACTION 


FUSION 


INCINERATION 


CALCINATION 


SUBLIMATION 


ROASTING 




DEFLAGRATION 


VI 


DECREPITATION 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



The following list, which numbers 
about 800 substances, is intended to an- 
swer the myriad of questions of price 
which have been so often asked the editor. 
The list does not take in either the ordi- 
nary or extraordinary chemicals of com- 
merce, either medical or technical, more 
or less complete lists of which can be con- 
sulted at any druggist's, but the list does 
take up the flotsam and jetsam of tech- 
nology, and it is thought that it would 
be handy to have prices on articles such 
as agar agar, aniline colors, essences, bay 
leaves, fluorspar, fusible metal, nickel 
anodes, oyster shells, pipe clay, mineral 
wool. Every user of this book is earnestly 
requested to obtain a full list of drugs and 
chemicals issued by any one of four or 
five prominent dealers in chemicals. The 
lists include many thousand articles and 
they are so valuable that the catalogues 
of all the dealers should be bound together 
for reference. Most dealers expect 5 or 
10 cents for postage on their catalogues. 
It should, of course, be remembered that 
fluctuations in the price_of articles listed 
are apt to be quite considerable, yet no one 
will be seriously misled if catalogues of 
dealers are kept on file as sujjjresttKl. 
These fluctuations will hardly take away 
from the value of the list. The list was 
compiled from five catalogues and con- 
tains perhaps a wider range of subjects 
than can be found in any one of them. 
Of course a list of acids in any one of 
them, for instance, is very extensive, as 
is also all of, say, the sodium preparations, 
which may easily number over 150 differ- 
ent chemicals and states of purity. The 
same might be said of almost any impor- 
tant chemical. 

It shouM be noted that all bottles, cans, 
and in fact all containers, are charged 
for, as well as packing cases if any are 
required. The postal laws exclude from 
the mail poisons, glass, explosives, spon- 
taneously combustible chemicals or any 
other matter liable to injure or deface the 
contents of the mail. Strong acids, phos- 
phorus, potassium, sodium or other ar- 
ticles considered dangerous by the carriers 
on account either of inflammability or 

[ 



liability to cause injury to other freight 
are refused conveyance by the express 
companies, but can be shipped by freight 
lines. 



Per 
oz. 
Agar agar $0.10 

Threads 

Powder .20 

Sticks , 10 

Albolene : 

Solid 

Liquid 

Albumen : 

From eggs .10 

From blood 10 

Alizarin : 

Paste, 20% 10 

Assistant (Turkey red oil). .10 

Alkanet root 

Almonds : 

Bitter 

Sweet 

Jordan 

Flour 

Aloes, Socotrine 10 

Alum, burnt or calcined 

Aluminum : 

Bars 

Foil 20 

Sheet 

Wire 20 

250-leaf book— $1.25. 

Leaf bronze 

Amalgam : 

Electric 12 

Copper 25 

Of sodium .20 

Tin-zinc 30 

Zinc 

Amber : 

Crude 06 

Clear 

Ambergris, black, $3.50 dram; 
gray, $4.50 dram. 

Amyl acetate 

Aniline oil >. 05 

Aniline C. P..... 10 

86] 



Per 

lb. 

$0.75 

.85 

1.85 

1.00 

.40 
.40 

.90 
.35 

.60 
.50 
.25 

.37 
.35 
.35 
.40 
.40 
.15 

.75 
1.50 



1.15 

.75 

2.85 

1.50 

4.80 

.60 



.50 
1.25 



.80 

.30 

1.00 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Per Per 

oz. lb. 

Aniline Colors : 

Black, soluble in water 

(Nigrosine) 20 1.25 

Blue, soluble in water 15 1.50 

Blue, red shade 15 1.75 

Blue, gentian 40 

Blue, Lyons 25 

Blue, methyl 20 1.75 

Blue, methylene 35 

Blue, navy 20 1.75 

Brown, Bismarck 20 1.00 

Chrysoidine, orange 15 1.25 

Coralline 20 1.75 

Green, emerald 15 1.25 

Orange 20 1.50 

Red, Congo 20 1.75 

Red, eosin 30 2.25 

Red, eosine, blue shade 25 2.25 

Red, fuchsine 20 1.50 

Red, rose bengal 75 6.50 

Red, rubin 20 2.00 

Red, saffranine 20 2.25 

Red, scarlet 15 1.25 

Vesuvan 15 1.25 

Violet, gentian 25 

Violet, Haffman's 25 2.00 

Violet, purpurin, benzo 25 

Violet, purpurin, delta 25 

Yellow, mandarin 25 

Yellow, metaniline 25 

Yellow, naphthol 20 1.50 

Yellow, primuline 20 1.75 

Animal charcoal : 

In grain— 10 lb., .07 , . . .10 

Powder 10 

Purified 10 .50 

Annatto 10 .40 

Anthracene, subl. 90% 15 i...j 

Antimony : 

Metallic .. .35 

Liver of .50 

Butter of . ., .26 

Aqua Regia ,. . .50 

Argols :. .J .16 

Arrowroot : 

Bermuda .- .10 .75 

St. Vincent ~, . ., .17 

Arsenic, metallic ... .40 

Asbestos : 

White, short fiber 40 

Washed in nitric acid 25 1.50 

Washed and ignited 30 2.25 

Wool 40 

Asphaltum, true 10 .30 

Babbitt metal 35 

Balsam : 

Canadian (fir), true 10 .30 

Copaiba 15 .90 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Balsam (continued) 

Fir 30 

Peru $0.35 

Tolu 10 $0.45 

Banana oil (Lacquer) — qt. .50. 

Barium, metallic — Gram, $12. 

Per 

Barks : lb. 

Angostura (Galipea cusparia) . . $0.60 
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) . . . .35 

Bayberry (Myrica cerifera) 25 

Birch (Betula lenta) 20 

Butternut (Juglans cinerea) 25 

Cinnamon (Cassia cinnamonum) .25 
Ceylon (Cinnamonum zeylanic). .40 
Clove (Cassia Caryophyllata) . . .40 
Elder (Sambucus canadensis) .. . .30 
Elm, slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) .30 
Lemon peel (Citrus limonum) . . .20 

Oak, black 20 

Oak, red 20 

Oak, white 20 

Orange peel 20 

Orange peel, cut. 20 

Orange peel, ground 20 

Orange peel, powdered 25 

Orange peel, Curacao 20 

Orange peel, ground 20 

Pomegranate (bark of root of 

Punica granatum) 40 

Sassafras ( Sassafras variifo- 

lium) 25 

Spicewood (Lindera benzoin) 25 

Wild cherry (Prunus serotina) . .20 

Bauxite 30 

Bay leaves 15 

Bay rum— Gal. $2.75. 

Beans : 

Vanilla ...; r... 4.00 

Tonka ...^^ y^.j 1.90 

Beeswax : 

White V... .. .60 

Yellow 45 

Berlin Blue 10 .40 

Berries : 

Elder (Sambucus nigra) ....... .$0.25 

Huckle (Vaccinium myrtillus) , . .40 
Juniper ( Juniperus commtinis) . .15 

Poke (Phytolacca decandra) 30 

Raspberries (Rubus idaeus) 60 

Sumach (Rhus glabra) 15 

Winter cherry (Physalis Alke- 

kengi ) 50 

Bismuth, metallic 35 3.90 

Bitumen 25 

Black lead 10 

Bleaching powder 10 



[87] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Per 

oz. 



Per 

lb. 



Bole: 

Armenian 05 .20 

White 15 

Bone ash — Finest quality, by 

51b., .09 lbs 12 

Bone black, powdered 10 

Brazil wood ^ .15 

Bromine 25 

Solidified 25 

Brunswick black.. 10 .70 

Burgundy pitch 20 

Butter cacao 10 .70 

Cadmium : 

Metallic sticks 12 1.55 

Metallic shells 25 3.85 

Metallic granulated 35 3.85 

Calcium carbide — ^2-lb. cans, 
.30. 

Caoutchouc 15 1.50 

For dissolving, pure .35 3.50 

Caramel — Gal., .75. 

Carbon : 

Ground, for pyrotechny 06 

Tetrachloride 25 

Willow, mealed— 10-lb. lots. .20 .25 
Animal, in grain 10 

Carborundum 40 

Casein 10 .55 

C. P 25 3.50 

Cassius : 

Purple, of 5% 3.50 

Purple, of 15% 7.00 

Catechu 05 .15 

Ceresine : 

White 30 

Yellow 25 

Black 12 

Chalk : 

In lump— 10-lb. lots 04 .05 

Precipitated — 10-lb. lots 10 .12 

Red— 10-lb. lots . 12 .15 

French, in tablet — 10-lb. 

lots 20 .25 

Charcoal : 

From blood 20 2.25 

From meat 25 3.25 

From sponge 10 .85 

From wood .., .10 

©hrome gray, orange or yel- 
low r... .12 

Chromium powder, 95% 1.50 

Cinnabar, pure : .2© 1.50 

Clay: 

Fire r..: .05 

Potters'— ®ake, .05 , r.r« .05 

Cobalt : 

Blue .. .25 

Ultramarine 20 

Foil 1.35 

Metallic o 50 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Cochineal 10 .75 

Cocoa butter 70 

Collodion 10 .95 

Collodion cotton 35 3.25 

Colophony, yellow or white 10 

Congo red 20 1.75 

Test paper, in sheets — Per 
doz., .50; each, .05. 

Copper : 

Metallic, turnings 60 

Foil 60 

Granulated 10 .60 

Powder 20 2.35 

Wire 10 .86 

Coral : 

White, prepared 30 

Red 35 

Corallin 1.25 

Cotton : 

Absorbent 30 

Non-absorbent 35 

Crab apple salt 15 

Creosote, white 75 

Crocus martis 05 .20 

Composition 08 

Crysolite— Gal, $1. 

Cudbear 25 

Cumarin .35 

Curare— Gram, $1.25. 

Curcumin — Gram, .25. 

Cuttle fish bone : 

Powdered 40 

Jewelers' .. 1.00 

Dextrin : 

Canary yellow — 10-lb. lots, 

.10 15 

Domestic, white (imported, 

white, lb., .18) 15 

Dextrose : 

Glucose, lump 10 

Glucose, crystals 15 

Diamond inks 45 4.00 

Diamond powder, $1.50 per 
carat, packed in quarter- 
carat packages. 

Diastase 75 

Distilled water — 5 gals., .50. 

Dolomite .30 

Dragon's blood : 

In reed .10 .80 

Powder 85 

Dutch leaf— Book, .10. 

Elaterium, % oz., .25. 

Emery flour .. .10 

Medium 10 

Coarse . . .10 

Ether : 

Acetic, rectified 10 .60 

Amylic 1.60 •« 



[88] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 
Ether (continued) 

Butyric, domestic 15 1.25 

Butyric, chem. p., absolute. .35 4.40 

Citric 1.70 

Formic, concentrated, do- 
mestic 22 1.80 

Nitric (ethyl nitrate) 95 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 

rectified, white 3.75 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 

nat. green 3.25 

CEnanthic (oil of cognac), 

artific, chemically pure. .65 7.50 

Sebacylic 75 

Succinic 60 7.15 

Valerianic = .40 5.00 

Fehling's solution 10 1.00 

Feldspar 10 

Fibrin, from blood 60 

Essences : Pint. 

Allspice $0.75 

Almond, artif 75 

Anise 1.00 

Bergamot 1.00 

Cinnamon 75 

Clove 75 

Cognac, artif 8.00 

Gin 1.50 

Ginger 70 

Jasmine 2.75 

Lemon 75 

Orange 75 

Orrisroot 1.00 

Peach 1.00 

Pear 75 

Peppermint 1.25 

Rose 1.50 

Rum flavor 2.25 

Sarsaparilla 75 

Sassafras 75 

Spearmint 90 

Waldmeister 1.25 

Whiskey : 

Bourbon 3.00 

Rye 3.00 

Wintergreen 1.00 

Lb. 

Ferro-Bor $7.00 

Chrome, 70% 30 

Copper 1.20 

Manganese, 85% 30 

Molybdan 3.20 

Nickel, 30% 1.40 

Nickel, 50% 1.50 

Silicon, 36% 25 

Silicon, 75% 50 

Titan 1.50 

Tungsten, 67.9% 75 



Oz. 

Vanadium, 10% $0.40 

A'anadium, 25% 60 

Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Fire Clay $0.05 

Fish glue, liquid— Gal., $1.50. 

Fruit sugar 35 3.60 

Fluorescein 75 

Fluorspar . . .09 

Flux: 

Black, Plattner's 15 1.40 

Black, substitute 20 

Bismuth .25 2.40 

Boracic acid 15 1.25 

Lead No. 1 — 5 parts potas- 
sium carbonate, 6% parts 
sodium bicarbonate, 2^/^ 
parts flour, 2% parts 
ground borax glass, .25 
per lb.; 100 lb. or more, 
.20. 
Lead No. 2 — 6% parts po- 
tassium carbonate, 5 
parts sodium bicarbonate, 
1 part flour, 2% parts 
ground borax glass, .25 
per lb. ; 100 lb. or more, 
.20. 
Lead No. 3 — 8 parts potas- 
sium carbonate, 2 parts 
sodium bicarbonate, 1 
part flour, 1 part ground 
borax glas-s, .25 per lb.; 
100 lb. or more, .20. 
Lead No. 4 — 2 parts potas- 
tassium carbonate, 2 
parts sodium bicarbonate, 
1 part flvur, 1 part pow- 
dered borax, .20 per lb. ; 
100 lb. or more, .15. 

Fuller's earth, powdered 10 

Fusible metal : 

Rose's, melts about 201° F. .30 3.50 
Woods', melts about 141° F. .30 3.50 

Galena 15 

Gall nuts 05 .50 

Gamboge 15 1.25 

Gelatin : 

In sheets, white. No. 1, 

fnest 10 .65 

Cooper's 10 .75 

Red 1.00 

For photographic emulsions. . . 1.25 
In sheets, 18 x 18 in., col- 
ored, red, blue, green, yel- 
low, orange and purple, 
per sheet, .25. 

Glass, powdered 20 

Glass wool : 

Coarse 50 6.00 

Fine 65 8.00 



[89] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Glucose (grape sugar) : 

White, solid 

Crystallized, pure 

Syrup 

Glue: 

Red, best 

Ground 

White, No. 1 

Buffalo 

Liquid 

Cologne 

Fish liquid— Gal., $1.50. 

Marine, hard 

Marine, liquid 

Marine, liquid (colorless).. 
Gluten, pure — % oz., .40. 

Goat's blood 

Gold, metallic— Gram, $2. 
Gold leaf— Book, about .40; 
varies. 

Graphite : 

In lumps 

Powdered 

Lubricating 

Lubricating, prepared for 
electrotyping 

Gum : 

Ammoniac 

Arabic, No. 1 

Benzoin 

Copal 

Damar 

Elemi 

Euphorbium 

Galbanum 

Gamboge 

Guiac 

Kauri 

Kino 

Mastic 

Myrrh 

Olibanum 

Sandarac 

Senegal 

Seed lac 

Shellac, orange 

Shellac, powdered 

Shellac, bleached 

Spruce 

Thus (turpentine) 

Tragacanth, No. 1 

Tragacanth, second grade.. . 
Guncotton, soluble 

Gutta perch a : 

In chips for dissolving 

Tissue — Yard, .55. 
Thin sheets for dissolving, 
brown 



Per 
oz. 



.20 
.20 
.30 



Per 

lb. 

.10 
.15 
.10 

.25 
.20 
.40 
.40 
.50 
.18 

2.50 
1.75 
1.90 

.35 



.10 
.20 
.25 



.10 .50 



.10 
.10 
.10 
.05 

.10 
.10 

.15 



.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.05 
.10 
.10 



.25 

.20 



.60 
.65 
.60 
.45 
.35 
.50 
.40 
.60 

1.25 
.30 
.60 
.55 
.75 
.50 
.35 
.35 
.35 
.80 
.75 
.80 
.85 
.25 
.12 

1.00 
.80 

2.50 

1.75 



.25 2.00 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Solution, in chloroform 35 

Gypsum, lump 10 

Hide powder 40 4.0Q 

Honey 20 

Clarified 30 

Of roses 50 

Hops 05 .45 

Iceland spar, crystals 20 2.00 

Indigo : 

Bengal 10 1.25 

Madras 10 .65 

Indol (indulin), % oz., .25. . . 1.35 

Infusorial earth .10-.15 

Insect powder .25-.35 

Invert sugar — Gram, .75. 

Iodine 30 2.90 

Iron : 

Filings 10 

Powder 35 

Wire, pure 10 .50 

Pyrites 10 

Isinglass : 

American 15 1.20 

Russian 40 4.75 

Shredded 20 1.00 

Kaolin : 

White— By 10 lb., .05 10 

Washed 20 

Kefir fungi 95 

Kieselguhr .10-.15 

Kryolite, selected, white .. .25 

Lacquer— Gal., $4 to $5. 

Lactose powder , , .22 

Lampblack— % lb., .05; % 

lb., .10 12-.15 

Lead : 

Bars IS 

Foil 20 

Granulated 10 .24 

Shot 15 

Levulose 2.25 

Lime : 

Marble 10 

Burnt 10 

Slaked or unslaked 10 

Vienna 25 

Chlorinated 10 

Water— Gal., .35. 

Litmus, best, in cubes 10 .80 

Loadstone . . .75 

Logwood 10 

Extract of 25 

London purple 25 

Luminous paint 35 3.60 

Magnalium 1.50 

Magnesium : 

Metallic 85 3.50 

Ribbon or wire 55 6.50 

Maltose, pure, cryst 60 5.50 



[90] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 

Manganese, 92% 20 

Marble, dust, chips or lumps. . . . .10 

Mercury 85 

Redistilled .. .94 

Mica: 

Powdered . . .20 

Sheets, as per size .50 up 

Microcosmic salt, C. P 10 .50 

Mineral wool .15-.20 

Monazite . . .40 

Mosaic gold (bisulphide of 

tin) .25 

Moss: 

Irish .05 .20 

Iceland ■. .05 .20 

Musk: 

Genuine — Orain, .10. 

Artificial .60 l» • 

Naphthalene : 

Tapers .. .15 

Balls 15 

Nessler's test solution. 15 1.10 

Nickel : 

Metallic, 90% 10 1.00 

Foil 20 1.95 

Wire 20 2.00 

Anodes (of cast nickel) 1.20 

Anodes (of cast nickel), 10 

lb. or more 1.10 

Anodes (of cast nickel), 50 

lb. or more 1.00 

Anodes (of cast nickel), 

100 lb. or more 90 

1% X 4 X 3-16 inches, % lb. ; 
3x8x5-16 inches; 2% 
lb. ; 4 X 8 X ^ inches, 4^4 
lb. ; 8 X 16 X % inches, 18 
lb. (Weights are ap- 
proximate.) Add 10 cts. 
per lb. for these small 
sizes. Larger sizes fur- 
nished to order. 
!Nutgalls (powdered, lb. .50) . .05 .40 

Nuts, kola 10 .40 

Oakum 13 

Ocher 05 

Oil: 

Almond .60 6.50 

Artificial 1.00 

Amber, crude 10 .50 

Amber, rectified 05 .35 

Anise 20 2.00 

Asphaltum 4.25 

Bay 04 4.70 

Bergamot 40 

Cedar 10 1.10 

Cloves 20 1.75 

Coconut 25 





Per 


Per 


Oil {continued) 


oz. 


lb. 


Cognac 


6.00 


, , 


Cottonseed — Gal., .75. 






Fish— Gal., .50. 






Fusel— Qt., .50 ; pt., .30. 






Lard 


.20 


.20 


Lavender 


175 




1.50 


Linseed, raw 


.15 


Linseed boiled 




.15 


Myrbane 


, , 


.20 


Neatsfoot— Gal., $1. 






Neroli (orange flowers), bi- 






garade, % oz., .75. 






Olive 


, , 


.40 


Orange, finest 


.30 


, , 


Orris, Vs oz., .75. 






Palm 


•• 


.25 


laraffine — Gal., .40 


.10 


Peach kern Is 


, , 


.40 


Peanut 




.40 


Pear (amyl-acetate) , pt., .75. 






Peppermint 


.40 


5.00 


Petroleum, crude — Gal.. .35. 






Rose (Kezanlic), % oz.. 






$1.25. 






Rosin— Gal., .45 


. . 


.10 


Sandalwood 


.50 


5.00 


Sa ssaf ras 


.10 


.75 


Sesame— Gal., $1.75. 




Sperm 


, , 


.20 


Tar 


1.40 
.10 


.15 






Turkey red 


.50 


Turpentine (rectified) .... 


.25 


, , 


Wax 


.25 
.20 




Whale 


.20 


Wintergreen 


1.90 




6.20 




Orpiment 




.25 


Oxgall 


.25 




Oyster shells 




.15 


Ozokerite 


, , 


.30 


Paper: 






Emery — Quire, .35. 






Paraffine — Quire, .25. 






Parchment — Quire, .35. 






Sand— Quire, .25. 






Wax— Quire, .35. 






Litmus, blue, in sheets, each 






.05; doz., .50. 






Turmeric, in sheets, each 






.05 ; doz., .50. 






Paraffine : 






Pure white, hard, melting 






point, 130° F. or 55° G. . 


, . 


.15 


Liquid . 


, , 


.20 


Paris green, pure 


. . 


.40 


Paris white 




.05 


Pearlash 


•-• 


.10 



[91] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Technical Substances) 



Petrolatum : 

Yellow 

White 

Phosphorus, yellow sticks. . . . 

Pipe clay 

Pitch : 

Black 

Burgundy 

Plaster of paris 

Platinum foil wire. etc. — 
Gram, $1.27-$1.50; fluc- 
tuates. 

Plumbago : 

In lumps 

Powdered 

Fine powder for electrotyp- 

ing 

Potassium, metallic 

Potter's clay — Cake, .05. 

Powdered 

Primuline 

Prussian blue 

Soluble in water 

Pumice stone — 10 lb., .08. . . . 

Powdered, fine, 10 lb., .07. . 
Purple of Cassius, C. P., Ys 
oz., $1.75. 

Putty powder 

Pyroxylin 

Quartz, powdered 

Realgar 

Red lead 

Rennet 

Resin, white or yellow 

Resorcin, cryst., white, pure. . 

Retinol 

Rhodium — 5-grain vial, $2..50. 

Rice flour . . . o 

Rock salt 

Rosin : 

By 5 lb., at .05 

Powdered 

White— By 5 lb., at .08 

Rotten stone 

Powdered 

Rouge : 

Jeweler's, best French 

Soft gold 

Sofit gold, 50 lb. or more.. 

Hard nickel 

Hard nickel, 50 lb. or more. 

Soft nickel 

Soft nickel, 50 lb. or more . . 

Soft silver 

Soft silver, 50 lb. or more. . 

Hard silver 

Hard silver, 50 lb. or more 
Rush, scouring 



Per 
oz. 


Per 

lb. 


.24 


.15 

.25 

1.25 

.10 


• •, 


.10 
.20 
.10 



.. .20 

.. .20 

.10 .50 

1.70 22.50 

.. .05 

.20 1.75 

.10 .55 

.10 .60 

.. .10 

.. .10 



25 2.90 
25 2.50 
.10 
.25 
.10 



.15 
.70 



.10 

.io 

.10 

.io 



.10 



.. .25 
.. .10 

.. .06 

.. .18 

.. .15 

.. .10 

.. .15 

.13 1.20 

.10 .95 
.. .90 
.27 
.25 
.55 
.50 
.95 
.90 
.90 
.85 
.25 



Per Pep 
oz. lb. 
Salt: 

Sea 10 

Sorrel 25 

Schlippe's 25 

Scheele's green 10 .75 

Sealing wax : 

Fine red, in sticks 75 

Common, bottle wax . . .10 

Selenium, sticks 1.80 22.00 

Sienna, raw or burnt 08 

Silex , .. .04 

Silica : 

In flne powder ' .10-.12 

Precipitated, pure 10 .75 

Silver : 

Granulated 1.25 

Foil 1.25 

Leaf— Book, .20 

Anodes 1.20 

Soapstone, powder 04 

Sodium, metallic 15 1.20 

Soot 20 

Spar, heavy (barite) .10 

Spermaceti • • .45 

Stains — $1 gal. up. 
Starch : 

Corn 10-.15 

Iodized 25 

Potato 10-.15 

Wheat 15 

Stearine 35 

Steel filings .. .15 

Sugar : 

Cane, C. P .. 1.00 

Grape •• .10 

Sugar milk : 

Crystallized 35 

Powdered 35 

Sulphur : 

Roll— By 25 lb., lb. .05 • .08 

Sublimed (flowers), by 25 
25 lb., lb. .07. 

Precipitated 20 

Washed 15 

Sumac . . .15 

Talc 15 

Powdered, in quantity 04 .10 

Tallow 25 

Tar: 

Barbadoes— Gal., .60. 
Strained — Pint can, .25 ; 
2-gal. can, $1. 

Terebene, pure 10 .65 

Terra alba 10 

Test paper, litmus paper, blue 
and red, turmeric, Brazil- 
wood, Congo, lead acetate, 
per sheet, .05; per doz., 



[92] 



(Technical Substances) 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



Per Per 
oz. lb. 
Test paper, etc. (continued) 
.50 ; per book, .05 ; per 
box (10 books), .25; nar- 
row books (24 in box), 
per box, .30. 
Thermit : 

Black ... .90 

Red 75 

Thymol, cryst., pure, white.. .30 3.15 

Tin: 

Bars 10 .55 

Granulated 10 .75 

Foil, thin 37 

Foil, heavy 81 

Foil, pure 70 

Amalgam 45 5.60 

And zinc amalgam 30 4.00 

Tripoli powder 10 

Tungsten : 

Metallic, pure — Gram, .20. 

For steel manufacture 15 1.10 

Turmeric : 

Powdered , .20 

Paper — see Test paper. 

Turpentine : 

Spirits— Gal., .80 ; pt., 15. 

Spirits, refined — Gal., $2 ; 
pt., .40. 

White, hard, select . . , 15 

Venice 25-.40 

Ultramarine, artificial 25 

Vanillin 60 

Varnish : 

Amber— Gal., $8. 

Asphaltum— Pt., .20; gal., 
$1.25. 

Black, for iron— Pt., .20. 

Bronzing liquid — Gal., $1.35. 

Copal, best— Pt., .50. 

Dammar — Pt., .35 ; gal., 
SI 75 

Flowing— Gal., $2.50. 

Gold size— Gal., $4. 

Negative, photographers', 
8-oz. bottle, .50. 

Picture— Gal., $1.25. 

Spar— Gal., $4. 

White enamel— Gal., $2.75. 
Verdigris : 

Powdered 05 .50 

Recryst., pure 10 .70 

Vermillion : 

Chinese 15 

English 12 1.50 

Vesuvin 15 1.25 

Vienna lime, lump or pow- 
dered , 20 



Wax: 

Beeswax, yellow, technical 
(by 5 lbs., .45) ; 

Beeswax, pure (by 5 lb., 
.60) 

Beeswax, white (by 5 lb., 
.60) 

Garnauba (Brazil) (by 51b., 
.50) 

Japan 

Myrtle 

Ozokerite 

ParaflSne 

Sealing wax, bottle wax... 

Sealing wax, fine, sticks... 
Water, distilled (by 5 gals., 

.50) ; gal., .10. 
Water : 

Almonds, bitter 

Caraway 

Cherry laurel 

Cinnamon 

Cologne 

Dill 

Elderflower 

Javelle — Gal., .50 

Lavender 

Lime — Gal., .50 

Orange flower— Gal., $1.50. 

Peppermint 

Raspberry 

Tar 

Wintergreen 



Per 
oz. 



.05 
.10 
.10 
.10 



White acid in ceresine bottle. 

White lead 

Whiting (by 25 lb., lb. ,02i^). 
Wool: 

Glass 

Mineral 

Steel— Fine, lb., .80. ..... . 

Zaffre 

Zinc : 

Shps , 

Sh .ets 

Granulated 

Powdered , . 

Amalgam 



Per 

oz. 



Per 
lb. 



.50 

.65 

.60 

.55 
.30 
.50 
.18 
.15 
.10 
.75 



$1.00 
.25 
.30 
.20 

1.00 
.20 
.50 
.10 
.40 
.10 
.25 
.25 
.30 
.20 
.25 

Per 

lb. 
.70 
.10 
.05 



.75 
.16 



.15 
.65 
.75 

.15 
.20 
.22 
.25 



LABORATORY APPARATUS 

Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use. 

For most of the apparatus shown, some 
oxidizable wire should be selected, such 
as brass or tinned iron, and the tools for 
forming these articles of wire consist of 
a pair of cutting pliers, a pair of flat and 
a pair of round-nosed pliers, a few cy- 



[93] 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



lindrical mandrels of wood or metal, made 
in different sizes, and a small bench vice. 
Any or all of the articles may be in differ- 
ent sizes, and of different sizes of wire 
for different purposes. 




Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use 

A shows a pair of hinged tongs, which 
are useful for handling coals about the 
furnace, for holding a coal or piece of 
pumice for blowpipe work, and for hold- 
ing large test tubes and flasks, when pro- 
vided with 2 notched corks, as shown in 
B and O. These tongs are made by first 
winding the wire of one half around the 
the wire of the other half to form the 
joint, then bending each part at right 
angles, forming on one end of each a 
handle, and upon the other end a ring. 
By changing the form of the ring end the 
tongs are adapted to handling crucibles 
and cupels and other things in a muffle. 

C shows a pair of spring tongs, the con- 



struction of which will be fully under- 
stood without explanation. It may be 
said, however, that the circular spring at 
the handle end is formed by wrapping the 
wire around any round object held in the 
vice; the rings at the opposite end are 
formed in the same way. The best way 
to form good curves in the wires is to 
bend them around some suitable mandrel 
or form. 

D shows a spring clamp for holding 
work to be soldered or cemented. It may 
also be used as a pinch cock. 




Wire Apparatus for Laboratory Use. 

E represents a pair of tweezers, which 
should be made of good spring wire flat- 
tened at the ends. F is the clamp for 
mounting microscope slides, and for hold- 
ing small objects to be cemented or sol- 



[94] 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



dered. G is a pinch cock for rubber tub- 
ing; its normal position is closed, as in 
the engraving, but the end a is capable 
of engaging the loop 6, so as to hold the 
pinch cock open. H shows a clamp or 
o:nch cock having a wire c hooked into 
an eye in one side, and extending through 
an eye in the other. This wire is bent 
at right angles at its outer end to engage 
a spiral d, placed on it and acting as a 
screw. The open spiral is readily formed 
by wrapping 2 wires parallel to each other 
on the same mandrel, and then unscrew- 
ing one from the other. The handle will 
of course be formed by aid of pliers. 
I shows still another form of pinch cock. 
It is provided with 2 thumb-pieces, which 
are pressed when it is desired to open the 
jaws. K is a tripod stand, formed by 
twisting 3 wires together. This stand is 
used for supporting various articles, such 
as a sand bath or evaporating dish, over 
a gas flame. It is also useful in support- 
ing charcoal in blowpipe work. 

L shows a stand adjustable as to height 
for supporting the beak of a retort, or for 
holding glass conducting or condensing 
tubes in an inclined position. The retort 
or filter stand, represented in M, is shown 
clearly enough to require no explanation. 
Should the friction of the spiral on the 
standard ever become so slight as to per- 
mit the rings to slip down, the spirals 
may be bent laterally, so as to spring 
tightly against the standard. N shows an 
adjustable test tube holder, adapted to 
the standard shown in M, and capable of 
being turned on a peculiar joint, so as to 
place the tube in any desired angle. The 
holder consists of a pair of spring tongs, 
having eyes for receiving the notched cork, 
as shown in O. One arm of the tongs 
is corrugated to retain the clamping ring 
in any position along the length of the 
tongs. The construction of the joint 
by which the tongs are supported 
from the slide on the standard is clearly 
shown in O a. It consists of 2 spirals 
g h, the spiral 7i being made larger than 
the spiral g, and screwed over it, as 
shown in O. This holder is very light, 
strong and convenient. 

P represents a holder for a magnifier, 
which has a point f, similar to the one 
just described. The slide k is formed of 
a spiral bent at right angles and off-set to 
admit of the two straight wires passing 
each other. This holder may be used to 
advantage by engravers and draughtsmen. 
Q shows a holder for a microscope con- 
denser, the difference between this and P 
being that the ring is made double to re- 
ceive an unmounted lens. 

[ 



R shows a Bunsen burner, formed of i 
common burner, having a surrounding 
tube made of wire wound in a spiral, and 
drawn apart near the top of the burner 
to admit the air, which mingles with the 
gas before it is consumed at the upper 
end of the spiral. 

S represents a connector for electrical 
wires, which explains itself. The part 
with a double loop may be attached to a 
fixed object by means of a screw. An- 
other electrical connector is shown in T, 
one part of which consists of a spiral 
having an eye formed at each end for 
receiving the screws which fasten it to 
its support, the other part is simply a 
straight wire having an eye at one end. 
The connection is made by inserting the 
straight end in the spiral. To increase 
the friction of the two parts, either of 
them may be curved more or less. 

A microscope stand is shown in U. The 
magnifier is supported in the ring o. The 
ring p supports the slide, and the double 
ring q receives a piece of looking-glass or 
polished metal, which serves as a re- 
flector. 

V shows a set of aluminum grain 
weights in common use. The straight wire 
is a 1 gr. weight, the one with a single 
bend is a 2 gr. weight, the one having two 
bends and forming a triangle is a 3 gr. 
weight, and so on. W and X are articles 
now literally turned out by the million. 
It is a great convenience to have one of 
these expensive little corkscrews in every 
cork that is drawn occasionally, thus sav- 
ing the trouble of frequently inserting and 
removing the corkscrew. The cork puller 
shown in Y is old and well known, but 
none the less useful for removing corks 
that have been pushed into the bottle, and 
for holding a cloth or sponge for clean- 
ing tubes, flasks, etc. 

Z shows a stand for test tubes. The 
wire is then formed into a series of loops, 
and twisted together at r to form legs. 
A very useful support for flexible tubes 
is shown in J. It consists of a wire 
formed into a loop, and having its ends 
bent in opposite directions to form spirals. 
A rubber tube suported by this device can- 
not bend so short as to injure it. Most 
of the articles described above may be 
made to the best advantage from tinned 
wire, as it possesses sufficient stiffnsss to 
spring well, and at the same time is not 
so stiff as to prevent it from being bent 
into almost any desired form. Besides 
this the tin coating protects the wire from 
corrosin, and gives it a good appearance. 
— George M. Hopkins. 
95] 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



(Laboratory Apparatus) 



Wash Bottle. 

By this simple device the washing of 
precipitates and the cleansing of ves- 
sels used in the process of analysis, 
which before required the use of the 
ordinary wash bottle, can now be done 
with much more facility and in a 
shorter time. It consists essentially of 
a thin glass flask C, placed about 3 ft. 
above the level of the working desk, and 
closed by a 3-hole rubber stopper. 
Through one of the holes issues a rubber 
tube D (or glass with rubber connec- 
tions), descending to the desk and ending 
in a glass nozzle. Connection is made by 
a second hole in the stopper with a reser- 




Laboratory Table Showing Wash Bottles. 

voir bottle A, placed above the top of the 
wash bottle. In the third hole is placed 
a glass tube bent at an angle to keep out 
dust. On filling the flask from the reser- 
by a pinch cock placed conveniently to 
the hand, the height of the water flask 
voir — the flow being stopped by a pinch 
cock — the water is started by suction 
from below, and the stream through the 

[96] 



nozzle can be regulated or stopped at will 
furnishing the pressure, which is sus- 
tained by the syphon. 

A Bunsen burner H is placed under- 
neath the flask, and the water can be 
heated when it is so desired. Hot water 
as well as cold can thus be used in treat- 
ing precipitates. Other solutions can be 
employed equally as well as water. (See 
bottle F.). 

The advantages of the system are : 

1. — The saving of much time and con- 
sequent labor attending the use of an or- 
dinary wash bottle, especially where sev- 
eral analyses are carried on at the same 
time, the exertions required by the mouth 
and lungs being thereby avoided. 

2. — No air exists in the tube, as in an 
ordinary wash bottle, and consequently 
the full force of the liquid is utilized im- 
mediately. 

3. — When used with a wash solution 
of ammonia water, no trouble is expe- 
rienced with free ammonia, which ordinar- 
ily is quite hurtful to the mouth and eyes. 

The large bottle E with the accompany- 
ing tube shows a convenient arrangement 
for holding any solution and delivering 
.the same. 

The shelves of a laboratory should be 
widest at the bottom and should become 
of less depth at the top to accommodate 
smaller bottles. The large acid bottles 
should be put on the bottom shelves. 
Reagent bottles with the names and sym- 
bols blown in are very convenient. 

A wash bottle is easily constructed with 
the aid of a couple of glass tubes and a 
flask or any bottle of convenient size. 
One of the glass tubes should be drawn 
out to the fine point, and the other should 
be inclined so that it is easily introduced 
into the mouth. Any desired quantity 
of water may be forced through the fine 
powder by moderate blowing. In some 




Wash Bottle 



(Syphons) 



(Cork Work) 



cases the wash bottle is more efficacious 
when warm. For fine chemical work still 
water .should preferably be used. 

Syphons. — Our engravings show handy 
glass syphons adapted for small opera- 
tion, the former being without, the latter 
with stop cock c for regulating the flow. 




Glass Syphons. 



The current is started in these Ij apply- 
ing the mouth to the end a of the tube, 
and employing it as an air pump to ex- 
haust the air till the fluid rises into the 
bulb 6. With harmless liquids, a simple 




Improved Syphon. 

bent glass tube may suffice as a syphon ; 
but suction with the mouth at the end of 
the longer arm is somewhat inconvenient. 
The arrangement shown above is simple, 
and presents certain advantages : A glass 
tube g, % in. wide, and 12-16 in. long, 
contracted at the lower end, has, at its 
upper end, a cork stopper, in which the 
mouthpiece M and the syphon h h' are 
fixed air-tight. The shorter arm h of the 
syphon reaches nearly to the bottom of 
the tube, and limits the play of a glass 
ball fc, which acts as a valve. The di- 
ameter of the ball is about % in., that of 
the syphon ^ in. The instrument thus 
arranged, being dipped into the vessel to 
be discharged, tfap tubes g and h become 

[ 



filled with liquid to the surface N N. In- 
stead of now sucking, as with the common 
syphon, one blows into the mouth-piece 
M ; and in consequence of the compression 
of air, the lower opening is sha^ by the 
ball k, while the liquid rises in h, and be- 
gins to flow through h' in the usual way. 
If the vessel to be emptied is not full, or 
the column of liquid is a small one, it 
is necessary before blowing into the 
mouthpiece, to suck it slightly, in order 
to obtain a larger volume of the liquid in 
g; as one condition for the right action of 
the instrument is that h h' should be filled 
before the column of liquid in g sinks to 
the mouth of the syphon at k, when one 
blows through M. 

Cork Work 

Corks are of the greatest possible use 
in all laboratories. Boxes of corks may 
be had of all drug companies and a plenti- 
ful supply should be kept at all times. 
It would probably be necessary to buy 
larger corks separately. It is frequently 
necessary to perforate corks, and for this 
purpose a set of cork borers should be 
bought ; they come in sets. An iron rod 
passes through the small holes, forming 
a. handle. A rotary motion should be 
given to the hand at the same time pres- 
sure is applied. Tfeere is considerable 
knack in boring corks, but it is soon at- 
tained. After the glass tubes have been 
passed through the corks the corks can 
be swelled to insure a firm joint. Files 
and rasps are convenient for altering the 




Cork Puller. 



shape of corks. Rubber corks are very 
expensive, but are better for many pur- 
poses. They may be purchased already 
perforated. The ordinary cork borer may, 
however, be used, wet with dilute am- 
monia. Pieces of rubber tube of various 
sizes, and also pieces of hog's bladder for 
joints, and heavy linen thread for tying 
the same, should always be at hand. 
97] 



Stands) 



(Stands) 



A cork press will save its cost in a 
short time. The form shown in our en- 




Cork Press. 

graving is very effective. Corks which 
have been compressed give better results 
than those which are used dried. In the 
type of press shown, the cork is revolved 
at the same time it is being compressed, 
thus giving a uniform compression. Corks 
having a taper should be selected. 

Stands, Clamps, etc. 

The amateur who has a shop at his 
disposal will have little diflBculty in con- 
structing all necessary supports, which 




Clamps for Various Purposes. 

will tend to materially assist his labors. 
To those who have no natural mechani- 
cal ability, or who have no facilities, are 
recommended to purchase such apparatus 
ready prepared of dealers in chemical 
supplies. A good retort stand is of prime 
importance, and one of our engravings 
shows how a retort stand may be used 
for several purposes at once. Iron re- 
tort stands are better than the wooden 
ones, and there should be at least 4 or 5 
rings. The base should be of sufficient 
weight to make the stands firm at all 
times. If the base of the retort stand is 
too light it can be filled with lead. Our 
engravings also show a variety of clamps 
which are very useful for a great num- 
ber of purposes ; at least 2 or 3 such 
clamps should be provided. Nearly every 

[ 



dealer in chemical apparatus lists 15 or 
20 different types at all prices. Where 
rubber tubes are used, pinch cocks will 




J 



4 



Simple Retort Stand. 



be found of value in cutting off the sup- 
ply of the gas. They can be readily 




Many operations can be carried on at 
once with a good retort stand. 

made by the amateur according to the 
designs given under Wire Apparatus 
in this section. 
!] 



(Measuring Liquids) 



(Measuring Liquids) 






riF 



LS-^-O 



^ 



Simple Filter Holder. 




A Triangular Holder. 

Measuring Liquids. 

Liquids may be measured in dishes or 
containers, of which there are a large 
number of patterns. The writer recom- 
mends the Swedish white enameled ware 




Carboy Tilting Stand. 



as indicating at once if there is any dirt 
in the article. Almost any large dealer 
in household furnishings would be able 
to supply a large number of vessels for 
measuring liquids required by technolo- 
gists and chemists. Copper measures last 
a long time, but are very :hard to keep 
clean. They are good for alcoholic liq- 
uors. A porcelain measure with gradua- 
tions inside is very useful. An article of 
this kind will save its cost in a short 



time for much work that is done in a 
laboratory. 

Glass graduates form an essential part 
of the equipment of all laboratories, no 
matter how small or for what purpose. 




Graduate with Rubber Foot. 

Glass graduates of 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 oz. 
are recommended. The chemical grad- 
uates are easier to get clean than the 
cylindrical ones. Glass graduates having 
a beaker shape lessen the liability of 




[99] 



Graduate Suspended from Wire Hook. 

breakage and are especially good for 16 
and 32-oz. sizes. Some graduates have 
a double scale, both apothecary's and 
metric ; these are specially recommended 
where mixed formulas are used calling for 



(Scales) 



(The Balance) 



both systems. Their use will save much 
time and calculations, and are specially 
useful in photographic work where many 
of the formulas are now given exclusive- 




Graduate Slung under Shelf. 

ly in metric system. A graduate is "no 
stronger than its foot," and this is the 
most vulnerable part of the glass meas- 
ures. Rubber feet with the screw socket 
into which the top of the graduate screws 
have come into quite general use, and are 
recommended as they tend to decrease the 
breakage to a considerable extent. When 
graduates are not in use they should be 
hung up by the foot, as illustrated in one 
of our engravings. 

For beginning with small quantities of 
liquids the pipette is recommended, and 
the simplest form is like the well-known 
fountain pen filler. Small pipettes can be 
obtained shaped like a fork so that they 
can be used as such in small bottles. For 
volumetric work and for other accurate 
determinatiohs, graduated pipettes are 
sold, but they are comparatively high in 
price. Small drops of liquid can be 
readily drawn out of a bottle and dis- 
tributed with the aid of the pipette. The 
drop, however, is different from almost 
every substance, and the number of drops 
a minim varies from 60 to 250. An ex- 
cellent table showing the number of drops 
in a fluid dram of different weights with 
the weights in grains and grams will be 
found in Remington's Practice of Phar- 
macy. 

Scales. 

A good ordinary scale costing from $6 
to $10 is recommended. Scales should have 
a capacity of at least 10 lb. Any sensitive 
weighing such as required in analytical 
work, assaying, etc., should not be at- 
tempted with scales of this kind. Where 

n 



corrosive substances which would corrode 
metal scale pans are in use, the glas3 
tanks should be used, or the substance 
should be weighed in glass bottles or other 
containers. 



f 



Pipettes. 



The Balance is simply a pair of scales, 
made and adjusted so carefully as to show 
very small differences in weight of two 
substances. 

The beam is supported in the middle by 
a wedge of hard steel, or of agate — a 
"knife-edge" — resting in a very shallow 
groove, also of steel. A similar arrange- 
ment is used for supporting the scale pins, 
but in this case the knife-edge is on the 
end of the beam. The steel should be 
protected by a very thin coating of vase- 
line. 

By turning the screw placed outside the 
balance case, the beam may be raised so 
as to allow it to swing, or lowered so 
as to prevent any motion. When not in 
use it should always be lowered. 

A pointer is fixed to the middle of the 
beam, and when the beam is swinging, 
the end of this pointed moves over a white 
graduated scale. When the two pans 
balance, the pointer will move over the 
00] • 



(The Balance) 



(A Simple Balance) 



same number of divisions on each side of 
the zero position. 

The weights to be used range from 50 




A Balance of Precision. 



grams to 1 milligram. The weights below 
1 cgrm. may be made of aluminum wire. 
Each weight should have a separate place 
in the box. The weights are arranged as 
follows : 



grams. 


grams. 


grams. 


grams. 


grams. 


50 


5 


0.5 


0.05 


0.005 


20 


2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.002 


10 


2 


0.1 


0.01 


0.001 


10 


1 


0.1 


0.01 


0.001 



Rules to be Observed in Weighing; 

a. — Put the weights on the right-hand 
pan of the balance. 

b. — Never put anything on the balance 
pans, or take anything off, while the bal- 
ance is free to swing. 

c. — Always use the forceps provided for 
lifting the weights. 

d. — On commencing to weigh, find a 
weight which is itoo great, then, after 
removing this, try the succeeding weights 
in order. Never pick out weights at ran- 
dom. 

e. — Do not put the small weights in a 
heap. Arrange them in order round the 
larger weights, wh'ch should be in the 
center of the balance pan, 

f. — Place yourself opposite the center of 
the graduated scale while weighing. 

g. — Do not remove ci^y weight from the 
balance pan until the values of all have 
been written down, and check your result 
CU) the weights are replaced. 



h. — Be careful to put the weights back 
in their proper place. 

i. — Never kttempt to weigh anything 
which is not quite cold. In addition to 
injuring the balance, the weighing will 
not be accurate. 

This mode of pulverization, though par- 
ticularly applicable to fibrous substances, 
is sometimes u«ed for metals and hard 
materials. In the latter case the files 
may have finer and &-harper teeth, and 
in both instances be particularly clean, 
and free from grease and dust. 

To Make a Balance. — A balance suit- 
able for weighing small articles can be 
made easily and cheaply. Such a balance 
can be made sensitive to the weight of 
one-quarter of a postage stamp, and capa- 
ble of sustaining a weight of severa'l 
ounces. It is made chiefly of wood. All 
the parts are common articles, and only 
ordinary tools are required. Only certain 
features require careful attention ; in oth 
er respects, rough work is permissible, 
says "School Exercises in Plant Produc- 
tion," by D. J. Crosby, in Farmer's Bul- 
letin No. 408. The essential parts of a 
balance (see cut) are the base (a), 
the pillar (h) , the beam (c), and the 
trays or pans, as they are usually called 
(d, d) . The beam is balanced by means 
(j1 the balancing nuts {e, e) . The pointer 
(/) indicates on the scale {g) the effect 
of weights on the trays. A screw-eye {h) 
encircling the pointer -serves to hold the 




r 




._. t,\ 


1 a 1 


^ 




^ 



A Simple Balance 

beam at rest, or permits it to swing, as 
desired, according as the screw-eye is 
turned. Four screws (t) at the corners 
of the base serve to level the balance. 

In making the balance thoroughly dry, 
soft pine wood is preferable. Screws are 



[101] 



(A Simple Balance) 



(Fuels) 



preferable to nails. The base%is 12 or 14 
in. long by 7 in. wide and 1 in. thick. 
The pillar is 1 in. sq-uare and about 9 in. 
high. It can be set in an inch hole in 
the center of the base. Care should be 
taken to have it stand perpendicular to 
the base. The upper end of the pillar is 
beveled 'on the right and left sides, as 
shown at h. A slot is sawed in the end 
to receive a knife edge, as shown at I. 
The beam is made from a stick 1 in. 
square and about 10 in. long. Its lower 
face is left straight ; the other faces are 
beveled from the center to the ends, which 
are left % or ^ in. square. A notch 1 
in. wide and % in. deep is accurately cut 
in the center of the flat or bottom face. 
This receives the central bearing (m) of 
the beam. An inch from each end of the 
heam a notch % iii« deep is cut to re- 
ceive the tray bearings. Each end is 
rounded to receive the balancing nuts. 
The nuts should cut well defined threads 
in the wood and move easily and smooth- 
ly. Applying a little soap to the threads 
helps this. A strong pointer (f) is firm- 
ly fastened to the tbeam by two or more 
screws. Its lower end is provided with a 
needle, colored black so as to be readily 
seen. The screw-eye (/^) is placed near 
the end of the pointer and in the center 
of the pillar. It should turn easily and 
smoothly. When the balance is otherwise 
completed, turn the screw-eye so as to 
hold the pointer firmly, then paste to the 
pillar back of the pointer a strip of white 
paper {g) bearing scale marks, 1-16 in. 
apart, with the mark of the scale di- 
rectly back of the needle. 

The three bearings of the beam are the 
most exacting features of the construc- 
tion. Each consists of a knife edge, act- 
ing within a groove formed of bent tin. 
The knife edge {I) for the central bear- 
ing may be made of a pocket or case 
knife blade, or of a piece of hard brass 
filed to a straight, sharp edge. The 
knife edges for the end bearings are 
made by filing the lower side of 
the tray wires where they cross the 
beam, producing a straight, sharp edge 
(w) about % in. long. The tins forming 
the grooves of the bearings are made of 
thin tin, such as is used in oyster and 
vegetable cans. Bright pieces are select- 
ed. The central bearing requires a strip 
1 in. wide and 2 in. long (m). It is bent 
across at the middle, the bend being light- 
ly hammered flat on a flatiron. The ends 
are then separated. The halves of the 
strip curve somewhat, leaving a narrow 
angle at the bend. This tin is firmly 
held in the central notch of the beam by 



four small screws. The tin strips for the 
end beaBings are about % in. wide. They 
are bent in the same way as the other. 
One end of the strip is longer than the 
other, and is punched to receive a single 
screw holding it to the beam, as shown 
at 0. The bending of the tin strips rough- 
ens the surface of the groove. It must 
be polished by rubbing the back of the 
point of a knife blade back and forth in 
the groove for some time. To insure suc- 
cess, the grooves must be very narrow to 
prevent side s'lipping, yet not so narrow 
as to bind on the knife edge. The highly 
polished groove and sharp knife edge pro- 
duce the least friction, and increase the 
sensitiveness of the balance. 

The trays are made of common No. 12 
wire. The trays are 3 by 3 in. and % in. 
Luick. Two holes near opposite edges 
receive the wires, which are bent in op- 
posite directions beneath the trays, there- 
by holding them firm and level. If the 
trays tend to swing from front to back 
of the 'balance, the tins of the bearings 
may be slightly twisted by inserting a 
knife blade under them. 

The balance can now be tested for use. 
When in working condition the pointed 
will slowly swing back and forth many 
times, and finally come to rest at of the 
scale. It proba^bly will not do this at the 
first trial. Set the balancing nuts at 
about equal distances from the ends of 
the beam, then stand tacks along the 
lighter beam arm until the two arms 
nearly balance. The tacks are then driven 
in permanently. If tacks are too light, 
use brads or screws. The final balancing 
can then be done by properly moving one 
or both of the nuts. The proper adjust- 
ment of the balancing nuts should be 
tested each time the balance is used. 

Weights, and objects to be weighed, can 
be held on the trays by cardboard dishes 
0') . A pair of forceps can 'be made from 
a strip of spring brass, or even of hick- 
ory wood, the points being properly sharp- 
ened. 

A set of metric weights ranging from 
20 grams to 1 centigram, and suitable for 
use with this balance, can be had for $1 
or less. 

Fuels. 

The technologist ha:, a wide choice of 
fuels at the present day. In certain lo- 
calities wood is plentiful and is well 
adapted for various processes. It is, 
however, very sooty and cannot be used 
for many purposes. Charcoal is much m 
use and is not expensive. It can be Tised 
freely when a quick, strong heat U Vir 



[102] 



(Fuels) 



(Fuels) 



quired. Coal is an excellent fuel for gen- 
eral purposes. Anthracite coal is better 
now for general use than bituminous coal, 
although the latter makes the hotter fire. 
The deposit of soot is often very objec- 
tionable. Coke may be had almost any- 
where and affords a clean, hot fuel. It 
is easily kindled. Gas rs perhaps the best 
all-round medium for the production of 
heat, except where manufacturing opera- 
tions are to be carried on. A large num- 
ber of devices calling for the use of gas 




A Convenient Alcohol Lamp,. 

are illustrated in the present book. T^e 
Bunsen burner is perhaps the most gen- 
erally used type of burner. The flame 
should be blue, and the air regulation is 
usually accomplished by a ring at the 
bottom- There are scores of types of 




f^^ 



The Blowpipe Flame. 



Bunsen burners. For very intense heat 
the multiple Bunsen burners are recom- 
mended. Radio burners using the Bun- 
sen principle are largely used in all of the 
mechanical arts. Gas can also he used to 

[ 103 ] 




Multiple Bunsen Burner, 




Improved Bunsen Burner^ 



(Fuels) 



(Contusion) 



drive a small tot-air engine for small 
power laboratories. There are many ap- 
paratus which g-ive increase by stirring or 
agitating where a small caloric engine, 
or water or 'electric motor, can be used to 
advantage. All of the dealers in chemical 
apparatus furnish petroleum, gasoline and 
benzine 'burners as well, so that those who 
are away from large cities or towns will 
find -their wants very well supplied. 

Where considerable quantities of hot 
water are required, a hot water heater 
run preferably by gas should be provided. 
They are not so expensive, and produce 
large volumes of hot water at moderate 
cost. Perfect control and safety of gas 
has a great deal to recommend it. 

Electricity, though well adapted for all 
classes of technical work, is very little 
used owing to the great expense of the 
initial apparatus and the cost of current, 
and the length of time which is also re- 
quired to Jaeat up the hot plate or other 
device militates against the use of elec- 




Burner for Slow Heat. 

tricity. The writer has used electrical 
stoves for heating purposes, and he can- 
not see that they are of any advantage 
over hot plates heated by gas. Should 
it be desired, however, to install electrical 
apparatus, great care should be taken when 



<==C\ 




A Good Type of Burner for Evaporation 

ordering the equipment that the voltage 
is the same as the feed mains, as other- 
wise the electrical apparatus will surely 
be destroyed. 

The blowpipe and charcoal are very use- 
ful things to have about the laboratory 
in connection with the Bunsen burner. 
Numerous small operations can be con- 
ducted with their aid. Blowpipe analysis 



is a very valuable means of determining 
minerals and other substances. 

I 

COMMINUTION OR DIVISION OF 

SUBSTANCES 

This operation is a mechanical process, 
by which the surface and points of c( .- 
tact of solid bodies are multiplied, thus 
diminishing the force of cohesion, and con- 
sequently promoting greater access to its 
particles, and enabling a more ready and 
rapid action of reagents upon solid mat- 
ter. The means by which the division 
of solid matters is accomplished are man- 
ifold, and those who are using technical 
formulas will often have to resort to 
methods which are not in use even by 
pharmacists. 




Draw Knife Slicer 

Slicing. 

This process applies to fibrous matters, 
and is largely practiced with a lever knife 
similar to that used by tobacconists for 
cutting tobacco. This slicing renders the 
substance in better form for maceration, 
and, moreover, admits of readier desicca- 
tion, a necessary process when it is re- 
quired to be further reduced under the 
pestle or by being grated on a coarse rasp. 
On a large ''cale, rotary cutters are in 
use, but they are far beyond the reacli 
of the amateur. 

Contusion. 

This is a bruising operation, which is 
very frequently resorted to to reduce a 
substance to particles, by striking a plu- 
rality of blows. A mortar and pestle 
is perhaps the most used apparatus for 
this purpose. Corrosive or caustic mat- 
ter should never be pulverized in metal- 
lic mortars, and such substances as chlo- 
rate of potash should only be reduced 



[104] 



( ContiiSio/i ) 



(Grinding Mills) 



with the greatest possible care. Mortars 
are made of various materials, such as 
glass, wedgewood ware, wood and mar- 
ble. Marble mortars are only recom- 
mended where the manufacture of toilet 
preparations, etc., is to be conducted on 
a considerable ^ scale. Wooden mortars 
are useful in many cases. Boxwood mor- 
tars are the best wooden mortars. A 
sheepskin conical cover, with a hole in 
the center for the passage of the pestle, 
is recommended. It should be fastened 
around its rim and over its motfth with 
a string. Circular pasteboard and wooden 
covers are often substituted for the sheep- 
skin cover. All substances of an organic 
nature should be previously diiied, so as 
to afford greater facility for pulveriza- 
tion. A previous reduction of 'ores and 
"coarse, hard substances into lumps, by 
concussion with a hammer upon an anvil, 
and of roots and like substances into 
ilices or bits with a lever knife, ^re pre- 
liminary processes which greatly facili- 
tate their pulverization. The substance 
to be struck upon the anvil can be 
W^rapped in strong brown paper before 
crushing. 

Silicious stones are pulverized much 
more readily after having been heated 
to redness in a crucible, and in that state 
thrust into cold water. This increased 
friability is occasioned by the unequal 
cooling of the mass. 'Metals, alloys, and 
the like, which are pulverized with diffi- 
culty while cold, may be readily crushed 
when heated to redness. When it is re- 
quired to reduce the substance in:o small 
frgaments only, it can be broken down 
by a succession of blows with the pestle. 
If the substance is very hard, the force 
of the arm should be added to the de- 
scending weight of the pestle, so as to 
impart power to the blow. A subsequent 
circular, grinding motion of the pestle, 
continued for a length of time, will fur- 
ther reduce these fragments to fine pow- 
der, and consequently this movement must 
be avoided when only a comminution is 
desired. The mortar should always rest 
on a sound foundation, and should be oc- 
casionally shaken during the operation 
of pounding, in order that the coarser par- 
ticles which mount to the sides may be 
forced back to the center of the mortar 
so as to receive the full effect of the de- 
scending pestle. It should never be al- 
lowed to strike the sides of the mortar. 
If the substance is to be reduced to a 
fine powder, the process is greatly fa- 
cilitated by operating upon only a small 
portion at a time, as the pestle is less 
liable to become clogged. 



Grinding and Pulverizing. 

These terms refer to the reduction of 
substances, by mechanical means, to 
coarse particles, this being usually re- 
ferred to as grinding, while the word 
"pulverizing" is used to distinguish the 
reduction to fine particles. These proc- 
esses are Pf great technical importance, 
and grinding mills are modified for the 
various purposes for which they are used, 




Fine Rock Hand Crusher 



and are manufactured by many concerns. 
Burr stones, roller mills, chaser mills, 
pebble mills, and mills having antagoniz- 




Bucking Board and Muller for Reducing 
Ores 

ing grinder plates, and also various crush- 
ing and disintegrating mills, and machin- 
ery almost too numerous to mention. 
Hand mills, on the principle of the cof- 
fee mill, are of a great deal of use. The 
drug-mill type is recommended. For cer- 
tain classes of grinding, the ordinary 
meat chopper will answer, such as for 
the cutting up of herbs. 

Grinding Mills. 

Grinding mills may be purchased for 
all purposes. It is impossible to recom- 
mend any one mill which will be of uni- 
versal application. If work is to be car- 
ried on on a large scale, an a.ppropriate 
mill will prove an economy, even at first. 
The pebble mill is particularly recom- 
mended for general use. It consists of 
a porcelain jar, made of imported porce- 
lain ; these jars are impervious to the 
action of heat and such materials as ink* 



[105] 



(Grinding) 



(Trituration) 




Abbe Porcelain Jar Mill 

The effect is produced largely by friction : 
the sliding, tumbling and rolling inside 
of the mill of flinty pebbles or balls, 
whicb are mixed with the substances to be 
ground. The movement is caused by re- 
volving the mill at a regulated speed. The 
type of mill which we illustrate will han- 
dle material up to 5 lb. in weight, and 




Interior of Jar Mill, Showing Porcelain 
Balls 



is turned at about 60 revolutions per 
minute. It weighs about 120 lb. Those 
who are going to manufacture on a large 
scale will find a large variety of mills 
of this type. The action is very well 
shown by our section of the mill. The 
mills referred to are particularly adapted 
for hard substances. Articles of a vege- 
table origin may be ground in a drug 
mill, which may be bad of any size. A 
«patula is absolutely essential; in fact. 




Hand Power Sample Grinder 



two or three of them will not come amiss. 
A steel spatula, and one of horn or rub- 
ber should be provided. Strange to say, 
the spat ila is one of the most convenient 
implements to have in the kitchen. 




Braun Type of Pulverizing Mill 

Trituration. 

This mode of manipulating with the 
pestle is applicable to those substances 
which are friable and fall to powder by 
being merely rubbed up by a circular Ofl 



[106] 



(Sifting) 



(Sifting) 



grinding motion of the pestle, and which 
would soften and become obstinate by be- 
ing pounded. Chalk and the like, and 
most of the salts, are in the first cate- 
gory, the rosins and gum rosins in the 
second. The pestle is given a circular 
or spiral motion, accompanied by down- 
ward pressure. The operation is con- 
tinued until pulverization is effected. Sand 
is added to facilitate the reduction of the 
rosins and similar substances, which cake 
under the pestle, only when they are in- 
tended for maceration or solution. Un- 
der other circumstances the medium 
would be an adulterant, on account of 
the impossibility of separating it. The 
jjrocess of trituration is also often per- 
formed with the aid of spatulas or flex- 
ible steel blades attached to handles, and 
is useful in the kitchen as in the labo- 
ratory. It is possible to get spatulas 
made of hard rubber for making prepa- 
rations which contain corrosive sub- 
stances. 

Porphyrization. 

This means of pulverization is only 
employed when it is desired to give the 
comminuted substance the greatest pos- 
sible fineness, and takes its name from 
that of the material of which the vessels 
in which it is practiced were formerly 
made. A small porphyry mortar, hemi- 
spherical interiorly, or preferably a slab 
and miller, is the apparatus employed. 
Flint, and even glass, which are equally 
as hard as porphyry, form economical sub- 
stitutes for that material. Porphyriza- 
tion is usually effected by rubbing the 
coarse powder between a flat slab and 
muller until reduced to an impalpable 
state. The circular motion of the muller 
disperses the powder over the slab, ren- 
dering it frequently necessary to collect 
it together in the center with a spatula, 
so as to keep it uniformly under the ac- 
tion of the muller. When the substance 
under operation is unaffected by water it 
may be moistened with that liquid, which, 
by converting it into a paste, facilitates 
its reduction, and prevents any waste by 
the escape of dusty particles. The pow- 
dered paste is easily dried oy being 
dropped in dots upon a porcelain plate 
exposed to warmth. Those matters which 
are soluble in, or affected by, water, must 
be porphyrized in a dry state. 

Sifting. 

The impossibility of reducing the whole 
of a substance at once to a uniform state 
of fineness by any of the preceding proc- 
esses renders necessary an occasional sep- 



aration, during the progress of pulveri- 
zation, of the more comminuted portions, 
from the grosser particles. This is ef- 
fected by means of a sieve, of which 
there should be several in the laboratory. 
A wooden cylinder of about 4 in. depth, 
with an accompanying ring of the same- 
materials, constitutes the frame, over- 
which can be stretched a cloth of any re- 
quired fineness. For coarser articles, fine^ 
brass wire is the best material for the- 
cloth, but when the powder is to be im- 
palpable, bolting cloth (raw silk), or 
gauze, is requisite. Sieves are also cov- 
ered with haircloth, buckram, book mus- 
lin, and iron wire of different sized 
meshes, each of which has its appropriate' 
application. The metallic sieves should 
have their cloths permanently fitted tO' 
them. For all the rest, two frames, as- 
above described, one of much larger di- 
mensions than the other, will serve, as it 
is only necessary to remove the ring when 
it is desired to substitute one kind of 
covering for another. The sieve of cloth,, 
of graduated fineness, can be kept in some- 
secure place, and withdrawn as wanted, 
and thus we have the economical means-- 
of possessing a full suite of sieves, from 
the metallic wire, through all the grades^ 
of fineness, up to the closest wrought 
bolting cloth. After the separation of 
the finer portions by the sieve, the coarser- 
particles are again subjected to grinding- 
and sieving as often as is necessary to- 
convert the whole into the requisite state- 
of uniform fineness. Where a more ex- 




Home-made Sifter 

tensive sifter is necessary, the one shown, 
in our engraving can be used. Its con- 
struction will be readily seen by referring- 
to the engraving. Horn scoops, or por- 
celain spoons or ladles, are the proper 
implements for transferring the contents 
of the mortar to the sieve. In some cases; 



[107] 



( Levigation ) 



( Granulation ) 



a stiff pasteboard card, being more pli- 
able, is a convenient substitute. The 
use of the hand for this purpose should 
always be avoided, as a slovenly practice. 
A platinum, horn or bone, or — less pref- 
erably — steel spatula, may be used to de- 
tach the particles adherent to the sides of 
the mortar. A round jarring motion will 
force through some of the coarser parti- 
cles, and thus destroy the uniformity of 
the powder, and hence the common prac- 
tice of tapping it frequently against the 
side of the mortar should be abandoned, 
unless the state of j&neness is immaterial. 
Some substances, however, as magnesia, 
etc., which obstruct the pores of the cloth, 
must be forced through in this manner, 
and even if necessary by a circular mo- 
tion of the fingers over the interior sur- 
face of the cloth. This manipulation 
frees the meshes of the cloth from ob- 
structions, but it must be carefully done, 
otherwise the safety of the cloth will be 
endangered. A sieve is also useful for 
the admixture of powders of uniform fine- 



Levigation. 

Is that mode of mechanical reduction 
which is practiced by first rubbing the 
substance into a smooth paste, and then 
separating the finer from the coarser por- 
tions by agitating the bruised matters 
with water. After a suflBcient repose the 
grosser and heavier portions subside, leav- 
ing the lighter particles still suspended 
in the water. This water, after decan- 
tation, gives a second deposit of an in- 
creased state of tenuity. The third or 
fourth decantation yields the powder of 
impalpable fineness. The time of repose 
between the decantations, unless great im- 
palpability is required, should be limited, 
and only long enough to allow the de- 
position of the heavier portions. The 
coarse precicitates are collected together 
a second tii_e and as many more times as 
necessary, rubbed up as before, and treat- 
ed with water until all the lighter por- 
tions have separated. This process ap- 
plies only to substances unalterable by 
water. When uniformity of fineness is 
not at all important, one washing even 
suffices, and can be accomplished in the 
mortar without the use of glasses. Alter- 
nate poundings and washings will eventu- 
ally reduce and remove the whole con- 
tents of the mortar. In washing over 
gold and other metallic ores, wh^re only 
the heavier portions are to be reserved, 
the water may be allowed to flow directly 
into the mortar, which, being held in an 
inclined position, permits its exit, togeth- 



er with the fine dusty portions, which are 
kept in suspension by trituration with 
the pestle. 

This process of levigation is founded 
upon the different specific gravities of the 
coarse and fine bruised matters, and is, 
therefore, not only applicable for the sep- 
aration of the particles of homogeneous 
matters, but also of equally fine matters 
of unequal densities. In the latter case 
it takes the name of elutriation. 

All minerals for analysis which have 
to undergo ignition with alkalies should 
be previously levigated, in order that de- 
composition may be complete ; for if the 
powder is not uniform, the larger parti- 
cles will escape decomposition. 

Pulverization in this manner, by uni- 
formly comminuting the particles, pro- 
motes their equal expansion and the es- 
cape of contained moisture, and thus pre- 
vents the decrepitation of substances 
when heated. 

The deposited powder must always be 
dried, by exposure, previous to subject- 
ing it to any other process. 

Reduction by Granulation. 

The reduction of metals to a pulveru- 
lent state is effected by fusing them in 
a crucible, and pouring the melted mat- 
ter, from an elevation, in a thin stream, 
very gradually, into a bulk of cold water, 
which is, during the process, kept in con» 
stant agitation with a stirrer. The fine- 
ness of the resultant granules is propor- 
tional to the slowness with which the 
fused metal was poured into the water. 
It is more convenient to transfer the 
metal from the crucible into a ladle, and 
project it into the water from that more 
handy vessel, which enables a frequent 
change of the position of the descending 
stream, and thus prevents the formation 
of clots instead of smaller and more solid 
granules. The fusion of zinc for granu- 
lation must be in a covered crucible, oth- 
erwise it becomes oxidized while hot, and 
partially sublimes by exposure in an open 
vessel. Zinc may also be finely divided 
by being beaten, while hot, in a heated 
mortar. The process of fusing metals 
and then agitating the melted matter in 
a wooden box until cool, reduces them 
to a state of minute division, but at the 
same time promotes their oxidation. For 
genera] purposes, however, it is not ob- 
jectionable, and the particles of charred 
wood with which it becomes mixed can be 
separated by elutriation. Tbp sides of 
the box are generally wpll chalked, to 
prevpnt any adherence of the metal; this 
also is separable by elutriation. 



[108] 



( Solution ) 



(Solution) 



Elutriation. 

Elutriation is a process of obtaining 
substances in a very fine powder by the 
aid of water. The heavier particles fall 
to the bottom first, and the lighter parti- 
cles follow. Advantage may be taken of 
this principle in constructing an elutriat- 
ing apparatus, which may consist of a 
large iron pan having 4 or 5 openings and 
valves, so that a portion of the liquid 
can be drawn off containing finer or 
coarser particles. Elutriation has been 
aptly called water sifting. It is an ex- 
tremely economical process, especially 
when carried on on a large scale. 

Pulverization by Intermediation. 

This mode is both mechanical and 
chemical, and applies particularly to the 
noble metals, in foil, which are diflBcult 
of pulverization. Honey, sugar, salts, 
etc., are the most usual media. By bind- 
ing the particles together it assists their 
minute division, and prevents their es- 
cape from the mortar. The addition of 
boiling water solves out the medium with- 
out action upon the metallic powder, 
which then only requires to be thrown 
upon a filter and dried. Phosphorus may 
be finely divided by fusing it with alco- 
hol over a water bath and shaking the 
contents of the flask until thoroughly 
cooled. The phosphorus subsides at the 
bottom in pulverulent form. Camphor, 
which is obstinate under the pestle, read- 
ily yields to its power when mixed with 
a few drops of alcohol or ether to de- 
stroy its elasticity. 

II 
SOLUTION AND EXTRACTION 
Solution. 

When a substance added to a liquid is 
wholly or partially taken up by that li- 
quid it is said to be soluble therein. The 
liquid employed is termed the solvent, and 
its combination with the dissolved parti- 
cles a solution ; and if the liquid has 
exerted its solvent power to the fullest 
extent, then the solution which it forms 
is said to be saturated, because it can hold 
no more. The variable degree of solubil- 
ity in different liquids serves as a dis- 
tinctive characteristic of bodies, particu- 
larly those which are solid. Solution is 
either wholly mechanical, or else chemico- 
mechanical. In the first case it is a 
molecular division of a body, or, in other 
words, a diffusion of its particles in an 
appropriate liquid without any altera- 
tion of its original properties, save as to 



form and cohesion. Thus, for example, 
an aqueous solution of sugar or salt yields 
the whole of its charge by evaporation, 
and one of sulphate of lime by addition of 
alcohol, in which it is insoluble. Ethe- 




Agitator for Liquids 

real or spirituous solutions deposit their 
dissolved matter by distillation or crys- 
tallization ; and some other kinds, that 
of gutta percha, in chloroform, for in- 
stance, by precipitation, with ether or al- 
cohol. When the dissolved particles are 
thus recoverable again in an unaltered 
state, chemically considered, their solution 
may be styled simple. 

In the second case, chemico-mechanical 
solution, in contradistinction to that which 
is purely mechanical, is a process requir- 
ing the modification of a body by chemi- 
cal action previous to its solution. Thus, 
for example, copper, iron, or any other 
base or acid, insoluble in the ordinary 
solvents, may be readily taken up by li- 
quid acids or bases. But the liquid holds 
in solution a newly formed body entirely 
dissimilar to the original substance in 
properties, as appears when it is sep- 
arated. In this, therefore, consists the 
difference between a simple, or mechani- 
cal, and a chemico-mechanical solution. 
As examples of this latter, iron may be 
dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, but in 
the act is transformed into copperas ; al- 
kalies are taken up by acids, but become 
altered to salts ; and oil, in being dissolved 
by potassa solution, is changed into soap. 
Hence it is that the chemical reaction 
is a preliminary step requisite to promote 
simple solution. The point of saturation 
in chemical solution is that at which the 
two bodies, invariably of opposite prop- 
erties, have combined in proportions ade- 
quate to neutralization. 

Solution is one of the most important 
processes in chemistry ; it not only facili- 
tates chemical reaction, but allows the 
separation of soluble from insoluble bod- 
ies, or parts of the same, and consequent- 



[109] 



(Solution) 



(Solution) 



ly the purification of the solution by sub- 
sequent filtration, evaporation and crys- 
tallization. 

As regards the power of dissolving the 
greatest number of substances, water is 
the first in the rank of simple solvents, 
alcohol the next, and ether third. Then 
follow spirits of turpentine, pyroxylic 
spirit, the volatile and fixed oils, chlo- 
roform, and a host of other liquids suit- 
able to particular substances. Of the 
alkalies, aqua ammonia, or potassa, are 
most used ; the former preferably because 
of its volatility, and that of most of its 
salts. All of the common acids are em- 
ployed, though some few only are of gen- 
eral application, such as the muriatic, 
nitric, sulphuric, acetic and tartaric. 

A very convenient way of testing the 
solubility of a substance is by means of 
a test tube. If solid, a small portion, in 
powder, is to be introduced, and covered 
with distilled water, or the solvent to be 
used, and repeatedly agitated by the hand, 
the forefinger closing the mouth to pre- 
vent the escape of particles. If the mat- 
ter is wholly soluble, there will be no de- 
posit at the bottom of the tube ; if par- 
tially soluble, the deposit will have de- 
creased in bulk; if totally insoluble, it 
will occupy the same space as at first. 
To determine as to the two latter results, 
a minute portion of the supernatant liquid 
is decanted and evaporated in a small 
platinum spoon, or strip of window glass, 
over a spirit lamp ; if a residue remains, 
it indicates that matter has been taken 
up. When heat is required, the lamp af- 
fords a convenient means of application. 
The procedure in such cases is the same 
as that above indicated. 

1. — There are certain conditions which 
greatly facilitate the solution of sub- 
stances : First, comminution, which in- 
creases the extent of surface ; second, agi- 
tation, which promotes the frequent con- 
tact of all parts of the surface with fresh 
portions of solvents ; third, the freedom 
from impurity of both the solvent and 
the body to be dissolved ; fourth, it is also 
influenced by the quantity and state of 
dilution of the solvent ; fifth, by the tem- 
perature ; sixth, by the mode in which 
the process is conducted. 

2. — Agitation is effected by stirring 
with glass rods when the containing ves^ 
sel is open at the top. The rod should 
be rounded at the end over the blowpipe 
flame, and to prevent its rolling from the 
table or top of the vessel upon which it 
should be placed, may be square, instead 
of cylindrical, as usual. A very conven- 
ient and effective mode of bringing all por- 



tions of the liquid successively in contact 
with the substance to be dissolved is to 
place the latter in a colandered dia- 
phragm suspended beneath the surface of 
the liquid. The first stratum of liquid, 
in becoming saturated, increases its den- 
sity, and consequently descends, and dis- 




Power Mixer for Liquids 



places a lower and fresher portion, which, 
being in the same way surcharged in its 
turn, gives way to successive strata, and 
so the operation continues until the whole 
of the matter, or so much as can be, is 
taken up. This mode keeps the substance 
in constant contact with new portions of 
liquid, and is, in fact, a kind of displace- 
ment process. When flasks or bottles are 
used, the same effect may be produced by 
repeated shaking. Trituration in a mor- 
tar, and alternate decantation and fresh 
additions of the solvent, greatly facilitate 
the solution of solid substances. 

3. — ^The purity of the solvent is an im- 
portant consideration, for if it contains 
foreign matters they may impart a dis- 
solving power which is not inherent in 



[110 



(Solution) 



(Maceration) 



the pure liquid, or diminish that already 
possessed by it. 

4. — In regard to the quantity and state 
of dilution of a solvent, it must be remem- 
bered that some substances require more 
of it than others for their solution, and 
that it should be in a greater degree of 
dilution. Therefore, in examining the sol- 
ubility of a body, always commence with 
small quantities, and increase both quan- 
tity and strength gradually as may be 
required. 

5. — Temperature exerts a considerable 
influence in the solution of bodies, and 
though in a few instances, as in the solu- 
tion of lime, magnesia and anhydrous sul- 
phate of soda in water, its elevation im- 
pairs the power of the solvent, yet, as 
an almost universal rule, it facilitates its 
action. The temperature must be adapted 
to the nature of the solvent and the sub- 
stance to be dissolved, and of the solu- 
tion formed. 

It may be as well to mention that the 
caloric rendered latent at the moment of 
the liquefaction of a solid, which is be- 
ing dissolved in a liquid, causes a de- 
crease of temperature. Solution in vol- 
atile liquids should be, in most cases, 
performed in the cold, and, when of small 
quantities, in narrow-necked flasks. If 
heat is required, especially when the va- 
pors are inflammable, a retort or covered 
still must be used ; and if the distillate 
is valuable, a recipient may be annexed 
to receive as much as comes over. 

The mode of effecting solution varies 
with the substance under process : Macer- 
ation, decoction, infusion, digestion, boil- 
ing and displacement have each and all 
appropriate application. 

In ordinary solution, the solid should 
be added in portions, and sufficient inter- 
val allowed for the solution of those in 
the liquid before fresh are added. In 
case of foaming or effervescence, an addi- 
tional amount of fluid will produce a 
calm. 

Some volatile substances which are in- 
soluble in water under ordinary circum- 
stances are taken up by it in the state 
of vapor. For this purpose both should 
be distilled together. 

When solutions emitting corrosive or 
disagreeable fumes are being made in open 
vessels the operation should be conducted 
under a hood the barrel of which con- 
nects with the chimney flue, so as to in- 
sure their exit. The containing vessels 
should be those which resist the action 
of heat, acid, alkalies and corrosive 
liquids. 

For making saturated solutions of most 



substances, ebullition is necessary. For 
this purpose the solid must be boiled with 
the solvent until the latter, on cooling, 
deposits some of its charge. The cooled 
solution is then to be filtered 




Hand Press 

Expression. 

By expression we are to understand the 
process of separating solids from liquids 
by means of force. Presses are usually 
used for expression, and are divided into 
screw presses, lever presses, hydraulic 
presses, etc. The ordinary screw press 
shown in our engraving is of great use. 
The ordinary meat chopper, with a knife 
in one piece, and costing $1.50, is a valu- 
able aid to expression. Horizontal screw 
presses of the same general appearance 
express as well as cut. 

Maceration. 

The soaking or steeping of a substance 
in a liquid, at the ordinary temperature, 
is termed maceration. It is almost ex- 
clusively applicable to organic substances, 
being most frequently resorted to as a 
means of hastening and facilitating the 
after solution of the extractive parts of 
hard, compact or impervious wood, roots, 
stems and leaves, by the more active 
methods of displacement and ebullition. 
It is employed when the soluble princi- 
ples are alterable by heat, and is also 
made use of to effect the solution of a 
substance containing several principles, 
the solubility of which varies with the 
temperature applied, as it leaves those 
which are not taken up in the cold to be 
acted upon by the aid of heat. Thus, for 
example, in the treatment of most vege- 
table substances, starch, which is gener- 
ally present, and is only soluble at the 
boiling point of water, will remain un- 
touched, while all other principles soluble 
without heat can be separated from it. 

The mode of performing the process 
is merely to place the solvent and the 
substance to be dissolved together in a 



[111] 



(Digestion) 



(Baths) 



vessel, and allow them to remain a longer 
or shorter time, according to the nature 
of the substance. For ordinary purposes, 
a loosely covered pan of blue stoneware 
is very convenient. In delicate opera- 
tions, a beaker glass, or solution jar, is 
more appropriate. When the solvent is 
volatile, a wide-mouthed, stoppered bot- 
tle may be used. 

Infusion. 

This process is likewise applicable al- 
most solely to organic substances. In- 
stead, however, of the solid remaining in 
contact for a length of time with the 
solvent, the latter is first heated to boil- 
ing and then poured upon the former. 

This mode is used for the exhaustion of 
flowers, leaves, roots, seeds, and other 
substances of delicate texture, which are 
easily penetrable and readily yield their 
soluble matters ; and especially for the 
purpose of extracting volatile ingredients. 
The heat applied to the solvent increases 
its energy ; but as the material is only 
in contact for a limited time, the inter- 
val between the commencement and com- 
pletion of the operation is not sufficient 
to affect the material or solution, even 
though one or more of its components are 
alterable by heat. 

Decoction. 

This mode of solution, which is so im- 
portant to the pharmaceutist, is chiefly 
employed for the purpose of exhausting 
those vegetable substances the compo- 
nents of which will not readily yield to 
other means. It is merely an extension 
of the last process, and consists in that 
contact of the material to be dissolved 
with a hot solvent in a covered vessel, 
which is continued until all soluble mat- 
ter is taken up. Most volatile matters 
are epelled by decoction, but those which 
are insoluble, save by prolonged action 
of heat, are dissolved or suspended, as it 
were, by favor of other principles pres- 
ent. Decoction is only used with liquid 
solvents which are not decomposable by 
heat. 

In all of the preceding processes, as 
well also in others in which solid vege- 
table matter is subjected to the solvent 
action 'of liquids, the colandered ladle of 
tinned wire is most useful for transfer- 
ping the residue to the press, for removal 
of any retained liquid. 

Digestion. 

This mode of solution differs from ma- 
ceration in requiring the assistance of 
heat, and consists in exposing a body to 



the prolonged action of a liquid in a cov- 
ered vessel, at any temperature between 
90° F. and several degrees less than the 
boiling point of the solvent. The method 
of heating varies with circumstances, and 
can be by a gentle fire, or by the sand, 
steam, water or saline bath, as the nature 
of the operation requires. 

In analysis, glass or platinum vessels 
are used, but in less important operations 
those of other materials are more con- 
venient and economical. 
^ A very important advantage of diges- 
tion is that it allows the perfect solution 
of all soluble portions of a substance 
without modifying the nature of the sol- 
vent. It is especially useful for the de- 
composition of ores, minerals, and other 
substances with difficulty acted upon by 
acids or other solvents, and also for ef- 
fecting the synthesis of compounds re- 
quiring a long continued heat. Moreover, 
it is very available in preparing alcoholic 
and aqueous solutions, medicinal oils and 
other pharmaceutical products. 

Evaporating Dishes. 

Special evaporating dishes of porcelain, 
glass, or enameled steel, can be purchased 
of all dealers in supplies, and are spe- 
cially recommended. Broad, shallow ves- 
sels should be usually selected. If glass 
evaporating dishes are to be used, they 
should be heated in a sand bath. The 
evaporation is aided by stirring; glass 
rods, or porcelain or wood stirrers, should 
be used. If the reader is going to use 
large quantities of the same materials, 
various means of stirring artificially will 
present themselves. Evaporation of many 
substances should be carried on under a 
hood, which may be of sheet iron or gal- 
vanized iron, like the hood over a black- 
smith's forge, or the work may be car- 
ried on in an evaporating chamber, which 
may be likened to a closet with the lower 
portion boarded up so that the floor of 
the closet is of a convenient height to be 
reached with the hands. There should 
be a closed window in the closet, which 
should be well ventilated to the outside 
by galvanized iron or asphaltum painted 
ventilating tight. All the arrangements 
for gas, etc., should be at the front of 
the evaporating chamber, so that it will 
not be necessary to reach over hot plates, 
etc. 

Steam Baths. 

Steam is very largely used in the arts 
for maintaining a steam bath. The steam 
may or may not be under pressure. Where 
steam without pressure is used, either a 



[112] 



(Drying) 



(Drying) 



steam jacket is constructed, or the live 
steam may be conducted directly into the 
top. A steam distributor can be readily 
constructed with the aid of pipe or elbow 
Ts, etc., and this tends to distribute the 
heating more equally, and serves to mix 
the ingredients which are being heated. 
If considerable operations are to be car- 
ried on, the use of steam under pressure 
is recommended for many purposes. Su- 
perheated steam, of course, raises the tem- 
perature considerably ; thus, if steam at 
the ordinary atmospheric temperature is 
to be increased, a temperature of 240° 
may be obtained by a pressure of 40 lb. 
to the square inch, while with a press- 
ure of 80 lb. to the square inch a tem- 
perature of 312° can be obtained. It is 
possible to build a water bath with a 
jacket in which steam at high pressure is 
gnerated directly in the water jacket. 

Attemperating Baths. 

There are many substances which have 
to be treated moderately io heat, so as 
to prevent the decomposition or destruc- 
tion of the substance which is being treat- 
ed. This is especially the case with med- 
ical preparations. Various attemperat- 
ing baths have been devised, many cf 
which are extremely ingenious, and are 
fully illustrated in the catalogues of deal- 
ers in chemical apparatus. The sand bath 
is one of the best-known means of pro- 
ducing an even heat without burning. It 
can be readily made by putting sand in 
a pan over the naked fire and putting 
next in porcelain or other vessels as it 
becomes necessary. Oil and paraflSne 
baths are used for certain purposes, as 
are also glycerin baths. The water bath 
is perhaps the most widely distributed and 
best-known means of regulating the heat 
which is applied to substances. The wa- 
ter bath may be extemporized, or the 
special baths furnished by dealers in 
chemicals may be used, which are more 
satisfactory, being specially adapted to 
the purpose. Salt-water baths are also 
largely used. The action of salt in the 
water is to raise the boiling point. 

DRYING AND DESICCATING 

Mechanical Methods. 

Foremost among mechanical appliances 
for this purpose ranks the centrifugal 
machine, or hydro extractor. In princi- 
ple, this anparatus consists of an upright 
drum, which can be made to revolve with 
great velocity on a vertical axle. The 
^rum may have its sides ronstrnotpd of 
sheet metal, perforated with a multitude 



of fine holes, of wire gauze properly sup- 
ported, or of hasket work, according to 
the nature of the substances to be treated. 
The drum, being charged with material, 
is set in quick rotation. The water pres- 
ent is thus expelled through the perforated 
sides, in the form of a fine shower. This 




Hood For Chemical Work 

process is exceedingly well adapted for 
removing the greater part of the moisture 
from cloth, yam, unspun wool, etc, ; also 
from crystalline and granular substances. 
It is not so vv^ell adapted for drying wet 
powders, pastes, etc, since in such cases 
a very considerable proportion of the 
solid matter is projected away along with 
the liquid, so the holes may get choked 
up._ Thus it has not hitherto been found 
satisfactory for drying sewage mud. Its 
use requires, further, special modifications 
where the liquid to be got rid of is not 
pure water, but holds useful or hurtful 
matters in solution, A recent very sim- 
ple improvement has considerably extend- 
ed the use of the hydro extractor. The 
materials, instead of being put into the 
drum loose, are inclosed in bags of some 
suitable material, thus preventing the dis- 
persion of the solids. This method has 
been very successfully adopted with but- 
ter. It must, however, be remembered 
that no substance, especially if of organic 
nature, can be rendered absolutely dry by 
the use of the hydro extractor. 

Another mechanical agency for desic- 
cation is the press, more especially that 
c'evice known as the filter press, which 



[113] 



(Drying) 



(Drying) 



has proved itself invaluable for separating 
solids from fluids when the latter largely 
predominate. This apparatus contains a 
number of cells, each consisting of a cou- 
ple of cast-iron plates, iined, when in use, 
with suitable cloths. The -inner surface 
of each plate shows a n-umber of ridges. 
The liquid paste is forced by a pump or 
press into each cell, 'through an aperture, 
and the water escapes through the cloth, 
and trickles down between the grooves 
formed of the ridges to the pipe at the 
bottom. 

The filter press, like the centrifugal ma- 
chine, only expels a part of the water in 
mud, eic. ; thus, if a sewage mud contains 
at the outset 90 to 95% of moisture, it 
m;jy be reduced by the filter press down 
to 50 to 60%, accord'ing to the time dur- 
ing which the pressure is maintained. It 
is only in a few cases that hydraulic 
presses, screw presses, etc., can be em- 
ployed for desiccation. 

Small Hot-Air Baths or Closets for 
Laboratory and Other Purposes. 

(a) The ordinary steam or hot-air 
chambers for laboratory use, although 
meeting the most of the requirements for 
which they are designed, have the dis- 
advantage of being more adapted for ex- 
perimental than manufacturing purposes. 
The want of a cheap and convenient ap- 
paratus induced Maben to bring under 
notice a design, due to Hyslop. one of his 
apprentices, who intended it for drying 
photographic gelatine plates ; but, by 
slight modifications of the interior, it is 
perfectly adapted for the purposes of the 
laboratory. 

The chamber consists of a strong wood- 
en box, a, 18 in. high by 18 in. wide, and 
14 in. deep. To the front a door is 
attached, hinged in this instance, but a 
vertical sliding movement would be more 
convenient. To two sides of the box are 
fixed wooden supports, which serve to re- 
ceive teak spars for supporting drying 
trays or evaporating dishes. The bottom 
of the box has a perforation of 3 in. 
diameter, into which a zinc cylinder, 6, 
is securely fitted, and to this is soldered 
the upper end of a copper cone, c, with 
a flat bottom, while into this latter a bent 
tube of 2% in. diameter and 9 in. total 
length is securely inserted in the man- 
ner shown. A corresponding perforation 
is made in the top for receiving a tube 
to answer the purposes of a chimney. 

Using a Bunsen burner or a spirit lamp 
as the source of heat, the flame is directed 
to the bottom of the cone, c, with the re- 
sult that the heated air ascends into the 



chamber, being diffused by means of a 
dispersion board, h, about 4 in. square, 
which is placed over the orifice. At the 
end of th^ tube, d, is fitted a "hit-and- 
miss" regulator, g, which consists of a 
series of triangle-shaped holes, with a re- 




Tiaboratory Drying Closet 

volving disc behind, so that the size of 
the apertures can be increased or dimin- 
ished, thus enabling the amount of air 
entering to be under partial control. The 
highest temperature to which the air in 
the chamber has been raised is 180° F. 
(82° C.) which is sufficiently high for most 
operations. If a uniform temperature of 
say 100° F. (38° C.) be required, the 
admission of air must be regulated ac- 
cordingly by means of the regulator, g, 
accuracy being insured by the insertion of 
a thermometer, m, into a perforated cork 
fitted into a i/^-in. aperture on the top 
of the chamber. By this means there is 
no difficulty in keeping within 2^^° less 
or more of the desired temperature. 

If a rapid current of warm air is de- 
sired, this can be had by placing an angu- 
lar tube, k, on the top of the chimney, e: 
by heating the angle of the tube a draught 
is quickly created. 

It is desirable in some cases to filter 
the admitted air ; this can be done by 
stretching a piece of lint or other suitable 
material between the regulator, g, and the 
tube, d, by which means dust particles 
are effectually excluded. 



[114] 



(Drying) 



(Drying) 



The metallic parts of the apparatus be- 
ing made to screw off and on, they can be 
detached at will, so that we can thus 
have a series of wooden chambers suited 
to different purposes. In this instance, 
the chamber being intended for drying 
gelatine plates, it was of course con- 
structed so that the light would effectually 
shut out, but it is obvious that a small 
glass window would add greatly to its 
value for most other purposes. The ad- 
vantages of this chamber are its simplici- 
ty, its perfect security against overheat- 
ing, and its small cost — it can be made 
for a few shillings. It is light and easily 
handled, and is always ready for work, a 
current of pure hot air being obtained in 
a very few minutes after the application 
of the Bunsen flame. It is specially 
adaptable in the preparation of granular 
and scale compounds, for drying precipi- 
tates, hardening pills previous to coating, 
and in other operations requiring a cur- 
rent of hot air. 

(6) A writer describes his drying 
closet as being made of teak 1 in. thick, 
with light-tight door in front ; the ends 
project beyond the bottom to form legs ; 
the top and bottom are both double (4 in. 
apart), and the air enters through a slit 
3 in. wide, and reaching right across the 
box. This slit is at one end, and the air 
has then to pass along the double bottom 
to the other end, where it gets into the 
box through a Similar slit, thus keeping 
out the light ; and it gets out at top in a 
similar way. Over the exit at top is 
fitted a tin or copper chimney 3 ft. high, 
in which burns a Silber lamp, giving a 
good draught, and drawing a large quan- 
tity of air through. Inside the box are 
brackets (each having a leveling screw 
through it, with the point upward), pro- 
jecting from the ends, on which are laid 
plate-glass shelves cut the width of the 
box, but 3 in. shorter, so that when the 
shelves are in place, if one is pushed close 
to the right end of the box and the next 
to the left, and so on, the air has tc pass 
backwards and forwards over the plates. 
His box has 3 shelves, 13 in. wide and 
32 in. long, and will dry 6 photographic 
plates 15 in. by 12 in., or, of course, any- 
thing less that will lie in the same space. 
Some have an arrangement for drying and 
warming the air before it enters the box ; 
but this sometimes induces blisters and 
frilling. Shelves should be_ far enough 
apart to get the hand in easily, say 6 in. 
Our next engraving shows a sectional 
view of another form of photographic 
dryin;^ box. a are shelves on which to 
put plates. In the drawer, &, are placed 



some lumps of calcium chloride. This 
absorbs moisture very rapidly, and the 
air in passing through it is thoroughly 
dried. In the flue, d, is a small gas 
burner, and below is a light trap, c, made 
of tin. The gas jet is for the purpose of 
causing an extra current of air to pass 
over the plates. It is better to confine 
the plates as much as possible to the 2 
middle shelves, as there they are sure to 
be safe. At e is a sketch showing how 




Photographic Drying Box. 

the door of the box should be rebated into 
the side. 

(c) England's drying closet is simply 
a light-proof box with wires stretched 
across the interior to suport the articles 
to be dried ; e.g., photographic plates. 
Through the center runs a 1-in. gas pipe, 
open at both ends, with a small gas jet 
burning inside at the lower end. At the 
top and bottom of the box 2 draught holes 
are cut, to which a tin tubing of about 
3 in. diameter is attached. The gas tube 
gets warmed with a very small jet of gas 
burning in it, a mere pin-hole being suffi- 
cient exit for the gas. This warms the 
air in contact with the tin tube, and also 
slightly the air inside the cupboard. The 
consequence is, that a current of slightly 
warm air is set up, and circulates among 
the plates while supported on the wires, 
and the drying of the films takes place 
rapidly. Some 5 to 6 hours is a sufficient 
time in which to dry the plates, while 
without the gas jet it would take 24 hours 
or more. In the inside of the cupboard, 
and near the top and bottom, are placed 
2 cardboard discs to stop the possibility 
of any stray light entering, and as the 
whole affair is placed in the dark room, 
the chances of any such access even with- 
out it would be small. Inside the cup- 
board door is a thermometer, and the jet 
is regulated so that a temperature of 
about 70° F. is indicated — 80° would do 
no harm to the plates; beyond that tem- 



[115] 



(Drying) 



(Drying) 



perature it might not be safe to go. The 
small gas jet used is the s;ame as seen in 
tobacconists' shops ; the hole in the end is 
plugged up, and a very small hole drilled 
at the side. 




England's Drying Closet. 

(d) A photographer adopted a large 
zinc case with a lid of the same material. 
He cut a long opening at one end of the 
bottom, and had another bottom soldered 
inside with an opening at the opposite 
end. He then had a Russian iron chimney 
fastened on one of the sides, and fitted 
this with a gas flame placed as shown, 
so that it might produce the necessary 
current of air. To make the cover fit 
air and light-tight was rather more difl&- 
cult. This, however, he managed in the 
following manner. He had a rim soldered 




feet closure. This box has been in use 
ever since, and, with the addition of a 
wooden tray, and of an iron vessel full 
of calcium chloride, has done very good 
service. In the figure, a is the zinc case ; 
&, gutter filled with shot ; c, wooden tray ; 
d, calcium chloride vessel; e, Russian 
chimney. 

(e) The usual form of hot-air baths 
used in laboratories are, almost without 
exception, affected by drawbacks, particu- 
larly the following : 

1. — Either the temperature in the upper 
and lower parts is different ; or 

2. — The temperature differs with the 
duration of heating ; or 

3. — It can only be raised to a moderate 
degree ; or 

4. — Finally, it can be kept up only by 
«. relatively large consumption of gas. 

Meyer proposes to remove these defects 
in the following manner : 

Equality of temperature may be at- 
tained by applying the heat at the side — • 
never below — and by taking care that the 
flame never comes in actual contact with 
the metal. The space to be heated is to 
be surrounded with the hot products of 
combustion of the flame mixed only with 
the smallest possible excess of air, in 
such a manner that a triple layer of 
heated gases, proceeding from without in- 



Calcium Chloride Drying Box. 

all round in the shape of a gutter, the I 
edge of the lid sinking into the bottom of 
the gutter, and then filled the latter with 
email shot, and thus obtained a most per- ' 

[116] 




CU 



Fig. a 



Fig. b 



{Drying) 



(Drying) 



ward, surrounds the inner mantle. Be- 
sides, the outer, or hottest layer, must be 
protected from too rapid cooling by apply- 
ing a suitable coadng of bad conductibili- 
ty for heat. 

Equality of temperature for any length 
of time may be best attained by a regu- 
lator constructed on the principle of An- 
drea's, which contains, in a small, con- 
fined space a small quantity of a liquid 
having a boiling point a trifle below the 
degree of temperature to be maintained. 
The author prefers the modified form sug- 
gested by Kemp, and improved by Bunsen, 
which is wholly constructed of glass ex- 
cept the lower end of the gas tube, this 
being made of perforated sheet platinum. 

In order to fill it, the gas tube, a, Fig. 
a, is temporarily replaced by a tube, &, 
drawn out at both ends and reaching 
down into the reservoir of the regulator 
(top of Pig. 6). The lateral branch, c, 
is now connected with the vacuum pump, 
the whole inverted (as in Fig. 6), and 
contracted end dipped, first into the liquid 
to be usea a». regulator, and then into 
mercury, until the chamber is almost, 
but not quite, full. The apparatus is now 
turned over, a little more mercury poured 
in, and the gas tube, c, is inserted. When 
using the apparatus, the gas tube is first 
drawn upwards, and, when the proper 
temperature has been reached, pushed 
down into the mercury, until the supply 
of gas is reduced to a minimum. By 
cautious adjustment, it is easy to find the 
position at which the ten~ion of the vapor 
developed in the tube laises the column 




Irving Chamber. 



of mercury sufficiently to just close the 
orifice of the tube, c, at the proper tem- 
perature. As the air bath cools off very 
slowly, but heats up rapidly, it is of ad- 
vantage to adjust the regulator to a slight- 
ly lower temperature than actually re- 
quired. 

It is best to have a series of such 
regulators, charged with substances, the 
boiling points of which are about 30° C. 
apart, and to keep them in a proper re- 
ceptacle for use. Suitable substances are, 
for water baths : ethyl chloride, ether, 
carbon disulphide, mixtures of ether and 
alcohol, benzole ; for air baths : water, 
toluol, xylol or amylic alcohol, cymol or 
oil of turpentine, aniline or phenol, naph- 
thaline, diphenyle or diphenylmathane, 
diphenlyamine, and perhaps also anthra- 
cene. It is not at all necessary to use 
these in a pure state, particularly those 
which are solid at ordinary temperature, 
since they melt more easily when impure. 
Only very little of solid substances should 
be introduced, for the excess distils off, 
and may clog up the gas tube. 

The annexed engraving shows an ap- 
proved air bath. 




Drying Air Chamber Arranged for Dis- 
tillation. 



It consists of 4 concentric walls of sheet 
copper, 2 of which are attached to the 
upper plate, and the others to the bottom 
plate. It can be arranged for the dry 
distillation of substances which should not 
be heated beyond a certain point (for in- 
stance, citric acid in the preparation of 
aconitic acid, etc.). 
[ 117 ] 



(Drying) 



(Drying) 



n&Mm 



9S 




Drying Chamber Arranged for Dry Dis- 
tillation. 

The innermost cylinder* surrounds the 
space, a, to be heated, which is closed 
from below by a double bottom, 6, fas- 
tened by a bayonet-clamp. The upper 
cover also double (the 2 walls being kept 
parallel by inner supports, of which one 
is shown at h) , has 2 tubulures, one, I, 
for the insertion of a thermometer, an- 
other, *, for the regulator, and another 
for the escape of the heated vapors. To 
this cover the 2 cylinders, d and /, are 
attached, while e and c are soldered to the 
bottom piece, which is also provided with 
3 legs. The heating is done by a brass 
ring attached to the legs, with a supply 
of gas controlled by the regulator, i. The 
ling has holes of 2 to 3 mm. bore in in- 
tervals of 3 cm. The little flames thus 
produced burn quietly and may easily be 
regulated. With the same amount of gas 
which is furnished by a gas cock supply- 
ing an ordinary Bunsen's burner, the 
space in a (= about 5 1.) may readily 
be heated to 300° C. and over, even when 
it is not closed below. But in order to 
obtain this result, the intervals between 
the several cylinders, in which the prod- 
ucts of combustion circulate, must not 
exceed 10 mm. Besides, the outer cylinder, 
/, must be protected with a non-radiating 
cover. The best, for this purpose, is a 
layer of asbestos (in sheet), to be applied 
so as to leave a little space between it 



♦The air chambers illustrated above are 
not square, but round. The illustrations 
represent a vertical section through the 
center. 



and cylinder f, which space is to be filled 
out with silicious earth ("kieselguhr") 
or mineral wool. 

If tubes are to be heated, the modifica- 
tion shown herewith may be used. It is 
also here of importance that the channels 
through which the warm air circulates are 
very narrow, scarcely 1 cm. apart. The 
8 iron tubes pass through the narrow 
walls, which latter are not double but 
covered with little flaps hinging upwards 
(one corresponding to each tube), as 
closely as possible fitting to the surface 
of the outer cylinder, but remaining slight- 
ly distant from the ends of the tubes. In 
case a glass tube (inserted in one of 




I 



Drying Chamber Arranged for Tubes. 

the iron tubes, for being heated) should 
explode, its fragments are caught by the 
loosely hanging flaps. Between the iron 
tubes, a Babo's regulator may be inserted. 

For special uses the above forms of 
air baths may be still further modified. 
It is, however, of importance to remember 
that the heated gases should surround the 
space to be heated in a triple layer; that 
the hottest layer should be near the out- 
side, and that the intervals between the 
walls should admit as little excess of air as 
possible. The gases escaping above must 
have the property of extinguishing a glow- 
ing splinter of wood. 

(f) The air bath ordinarily used in 
chemical laboratories for drying precipi- 
tates, for making determinations of water 
by loss, and for similar purposes, is usual- 
ly a rather expensive piece of apparatus. 
The iron or copper closet, with its door, - 
tubulure for thermometer, shelves, stand. 



L118] 



(Air Baths) 



(Air Baths) 




Air Baths. 

etc., works no more satisfactorily because 
of its somewhat elaborate or difficult con- 
struction. In our engravings are shown a 
simple substitute for this apparatus, that 
as regards simplicity cannot well be ex- 
celled, while its other good features cer- 
tainly operate to commend it. It consists 
of an inverted flower pot sustained upon 
an ordinary tin pan or sand bath, the 
whole being carried by a tripod or retort 
stand. The aperture at the top serves to 
receive a perforated cork through which a 
thermometer is passed. An ordinary Bun- 
sen burner is used to heat it. As the sand 
bath directly over the burner becomes 
very hot it is advisable to invert a second 
smaller sand bath within the first as 
shown in B. This prevents too direct a 
radiation of heat from the hot metal. 
Upon this the little stand or bent triangle 
supporting the crucible or watch glass 
containing the substance to be heated may 
be placed. The thermometer should be 
thrust down through the cork until its 
bulb is near the substance to be dried, 
so as to obtain a correct indication of the 
temperature at that point. The entire 
arrangement is shown in external view 
in A. 

To place the vessel in it or to remove 
one, the flower pot is lifted off the sand 
baths. It will be observed that its porous 
nature provides a species of ventilation, 



while its composition assures it against 
corrosion. It even protects the plates 
below to a considerable extent, as drops 
of water or other fluid cannot run down 
its sides as it cools. 

But convenient as it is in the role of 
air bath for simple drying operations, it 
will be found more so where drying tubes 
or retorts have to be manipulated at con- 
stant temperature. The flower pot can be 
perforated at any place, and holes of any 
size or shape can be drilled and cut 
through it with an old knife, file, or other 
implement. Thus in C it is shown in use 
for drying a substance at constant tem- 
perature in a straight drying tube. The 
holes to receive this tube can be drilled 
in a few minutes. The arrangement as 
shown is of the simplest kind, but if the 
usual bath was used, it would require a 
special tubulation to be introduced or con- 
trived for the tube to pass through. 
Flower pots cost so little that there need 
be no hesitation in preparing them for 
special uses. 

In D a U tube is shown as being 
heated, while in E a retort occupies the 
bath, and is in use for fractional distil- 
lation or other operation requiring a con- 
stant temperature. In all cases it is 
better to use the second bath inverted 
within the chamber. It conduces greatly 
to the maintenance of an even tempera- 
ture throughout the whole space. A hint 
may also be taken from the heavy drying 
plate formerly perhaps more used than at 
present. If for the light metal pans a 
heavy plate of % in. or more in thickness 
is substituted, the temperature will not 
be subject to as rapid variations, and less 
difficulty will be experienced in keeping a 
constant temperature. The tray furnished 
with the next large size of pot may be 
used instead of the sand bath upon which 
to rest the inverted flower pot. This 
gives an absolutely non-corrodible con- 
struction. 

When the bath is in use for drying sub- 
stances, its top, which is at a rather low 
heat, affords an excellent place of drying 
precipitates wrapt in their filter papers. 
It acts in two ways. It is generally just 
hot enough to dry them with reasonable 
quickness without danger of spurting, and 
it also acts by capillarity to absorb the 
water directly. It represents in the last 
respect the porous tile or blotting paper — 
appliances too little appreciated by chem- 
ists here. It must be remembered that 
the drying of a precipitate by evaporation 
leaves all the impurities of the wash water 
concentrated therein, while capillary ab- 
sorption removes a great part of boih 



[119] 



(Air Baths) 



(Air Baths) 



wash water and its impurities, thus con- 
ducing to the accuracy of the work. 

Water-heated Air Baths and Ovens. 

(a) The accompanying sketch of a com- 
bined steam oven and distilled water ap- 
paratus, so arranged as to be left to itself 
for a long period of time without the 
risk of the boiler going dry, may perhaps 
be of interest to many, and a few words 
only are necessary to describe the work- 
ing. The steam oven, d, is of the ordinary 
construction, but is fitted at the side with 
a tube connecting it with the con- 
denser, h. Heat is applied to a by 
means of a radial burner, connected with, 
the gas supply by metallic tubing ; the 
steam generated circulates around the 
drying chamber, escapes through the cop- 
per tube, c, thence through block-tin 
worm, and falls as distilled water in the 
receiver, d. The cistern, e, fitted with a 
Mariotte's tube, holds cold water, which 
falls through the tube, f, enters the con- 
denser, where it rises slowly, absorbing 
heat from the condensing worm, until it 
reaches the tube leading to the boiler at 
a high temperature. For a cistern, an 
18-gal. ale cask, supported on a stool, has 
been found to answer admirably, having 
the advantage of holding sufficient water 
on the top to secure the 2 corks being air- 
tight. By a suitable adjustment of the 
Mariotte's tuhe, h, the rate of flow of 
the water can be so regulated that the 
level of water in the condenser is con- 
stant, or, if desired, allowed to drop slow- 
ly into the waste pipe, while the water 
evaporated from a is renewed by water 




Steam Oven and Distilled Water Appara- 
tus. 

already near boiling. In practice it has 
been found necessary to allow the water 
to waste at the rate of about 2 drops per 
minute, the 18 gal. lasting for over 72 j 
hours, during which time 10 to 11 gal. of 
distilled water are collected. When this I 

[120] 



apparatus was first fitted up in the labora- 
tory, it was intended to have connected 
the condenser directly with the town 
water supply, but as the waterworks 
authorities would sanction no such con- 
nection, we had recourse to the cistern, 
with the satisfactory result that we are 
in this respect quite independent of the 
caprice of the waterworks turncock. The 
several connections are made by union 
joints, to allow the apparatus to be taken 
to pieces and the boiler freed from scale. 
The whole apparatus may be supported 
upon a strong shelf, which should be pro- 
tected from the heat of the burner by 
means of slates or asbestos millboard. 
With this arrangement, bulky precipi- 
tates may be allowed to remain in the 
steam oven all night and found ready for 
further treatment next morning. 

(6) In the annexed engraving is shown 
a constant water bath, consisting of a 
square box, A, supported over a Fletcher's 
solid flame burner. The top of the box, 
15 X 15.5 in., is formed by a brass plate, 
Ys in. thick, which thus is stiff enough to 




Constant Water Bath, 



(Vaporization) 



(Evaporation) 



support a considerable weight without 
yielding, the sides and bottom being sheet 
copper. From the point, B, projects a %- 
in. brass tube, B C, which turns up at 
right angle. At E is a stop cock, which 
is connected by a thick rubber tube with 
the glass tube, D F, which is fastened 
against the adjoining wall. Connected 
with C by a rubber joint is a %-in. block 
tin tube of 20 ft. length, which extends 
up the wall in the manner shown to the 
highest point, T, and thence returns and 
ends just over the slightly funnel-shaped 
top of the glass tube at D. The bath 
being filled with water to just the level, 
B 6, may 'be kept constant by boiling for 
many days without appreciable loss of 
water, the steam being condensed in its 
passage up, or, if uncondensed before it 
reaches the point, T, in its passage down 
the block tin tube. In flat-bottomed pla- 
tinum or porcelain capsules, evaporation 
goes on very rapidly when placed on top 
of this water bath. The whole surface 
of the bath is nickel plated. 




Automatic Cut-off for Gas for Drying 
Chamber. 



Ill 
VAPORIZATION 

By the term "vaporization" we are to 
understand certain mechanical operations 
by which volatile substances are separated 
from other fixed bodies, or from bodies 

[121] 



which may be less volatile, by the action 
of heat. When a volatile liquid is separ- 
ated from a less volatile liquid, by the 
process of vaporization, we have what is 
known as evaporization. When a volatile 
liquid is to be collected we have what is 
known as distillation. When a solid is 
to be separated from the volatile liquid, 
we have what is known as desiccation, in 
Which solid substances are deprived of 
moisture. Excication is the process by 
which a solid, crystalline substance is 
deprived of its water of crystallization, by 
the aid of powerful heat. 

Granulation. 

This is the process by which a powder 
is produced by heating a solution until 
the moisture has evaporated. Many salts 
are treated in this manner. The heat 
which should be applied in this process 
should be strong at first, and then grad- 
ually reduced. The stirring should be 
constant. When vaporization is used to 
separate a volatile solid from another 
body, it is known as sublimination. It 
can also be called a process of distilling 
volatile solids. It is a process which is 
largely used in the manufacture of chemi- 
cals, and is not so largely used in the 
laboratory. 

Evaporation, 

When any liquid is heated for the pur- 
pose of expelling vaporizable matter, and 
the process is conducted solely with a 
view to saving its fixed portion, the opera- 
tion is termed evaporation. It thus far 
differs from distillation, which has for its 
object the preservation of the volatilized 
portion, in most cases, regardless of the 
solid. By its aid we can decrease the 
volume of or concentrate solutions for 
crystallization and chemical reaction, ex- 
pel valueless volatile ingredients from 
those which are more fixed, obtain dis- 
solved matter in a dry state, and prepare 
extracts and other pharmaceutical prod- 
ucts. 

Liquids evaporate more or less at all 
temperatures, those having the lowest 
boiling point yielding the most readily ; 
but there are certain conditions which 
greatly promote this tendency. It must be 
remembered, therefore : 

1. — That evaporation is more rapid in 
dry atmospheres, and that consequently 
the transit of a constant stream of air 
over the surface af the heated liquid 
effects a continual removal of each 
stratum as it becomes saturated with 



vapor. 

2. — That evaporation is confined to the 



(Evaporation) 



(Evapofation, 



surface, and consequently that the breadth 
of the evaporating vessel must be extended 
at the expense of its depth, 

3. — That heat greatly facilitates evapor- 
ation by lessening the cohesive force of 
the particles of a liquid, and consequently 
that the evaporating vessel should present 
a broad surface to be heated. 

4. — That a diminution of the atmos- 
pheric pressure also facilitates evapora- 
tion, for the more perfect the vacuum the 
lower the boiling point of a liquid. 

For analytical purposes, capsules ^ of 
Berlin porcelain are toy far the best im- 
plements. The capsules should be very 
thin, with steep sides, spout for pouring, 
nearly flat bottomed, and glazed through- 
out. Watch glasses ansv/er for small ex- 
periments, but require to be very cautious- 
ly heated, as they are readily fractured. 

Beaker glasses are also used for evapor- 
ating solutions which would lose by being 
transferred. Broad-mouthed glass flasks 
are of but limited application for evapor- 
ating, and are only employed for slow 
processes with valuable liquids, which are 
liable to altemtion by too much exposure 
when ebullition is necessary. 

For the larger operations of the chemist 
or pharmaceutist, vessels of copper, tin, 
enamelled iron, tinned copper, and for 
some purposes very large porcelain cap- 
sules are more suitable. 

Retorts are used when the vaporized 
particles are of sufficient value to be con- 
densed, as in the process of distillation. 

Spontaneous Evaporation. 

Those liquids which are very volatile 
or which become altered by heat, are 
evaporated by mere exposure to the atmos- 
phere at its ordinary temperature. To 
this end they are poured into broad shal- 
low vessels, and placed aside until the 
dissipation of all vaporizable matters, or 
until crystallization ; this mode of evapor- 
ation being also employed for procuring 
large crystals, which are better defined 
than those obtained by rapid evaporation. 
The more dry and hot the atmosphere the 
more rapid is the evaporation. In order 
to maintain a continued contact of the 
face of the liquid with strata of fresh air, 
the vessel containing it should be placed 
in a draught, so that those portions of air 
which become saturated with vapor may 
be displaced. When the air might act 
injuriously, and a vacuum is unnecessary, 
a substance may be evaporated in another 
atmosphere, for instance, of hydrogen or 
carbonic acid. For this purpose it is only 
necessary to adjust the disengagement leg 
of the apparatus to the tubulure of a 

[12: 



retort, so that its end may reach nearly 
to the level of the liquid in the latter. 
The generated hydrogen passes into the 
retort heated to the required temperature, 
and promotes the discharge of the vapors 
into a recipient attached to the beak of 
the retort, and fitted with a small tube 
in its other tubulure for the disengage- 
ment of uncondensed portions. 

For the evaporation of solutions of sul- 
pho-bases, of sulpho-salts, and of all 
substances readily oxidizable by exposure, 
this process is better applicable than that 
with the air pump, which is apt to be 
attacked when the eliminated vapors are 
corrosive. 

This process is much used in crystalliza- 
tion, for concentrating alterable solutions, 
and drying precipitates. 

Evaporation in Vacuo. 

We have already referred to the happy 
influence of diminished atmospheric pres- 
sure in facilitating evaporation, and shall 
now speak of the means by which it is 
accomplished, and the particular in- 
stances in which it is employed. 

This mode is resorted to for hastening 
the evaporation of all liquids, but more 
especially of those which are alterable by 
exposure. 

Evaporation by Heat in Open Air. 

Having already noted the effects of 
heat in facilitating evaporation, we pro- 
ceed to make known its modes of applica- 
tion. As the boiling points of solutions 
differ, so accordingly their evaporations 
are effected at varying temperatures. For 
example, aqueous o-r other solutions of 
unalterable matter may be evaporated 
over the fire ; others which are destructi- 
ble by heat require the intervention of 
baths. In whatever mode the operation 
is performed, the general principles are 
the same, and whether the vessel be a por- 
celain capsule or metallic pan, the greater 
its width in proportion to its depth the 
more rapid is the evaporation. Constant 
agitation with a stirrer is also promotive 
of the process. 

Evaporation Over Water and Saline 
Baths. 

When solutions are alterable at a tem- 
perature of 212° F., the capsule or con- 
taining vessel is heated over the water 
bath. If it requires a higher heat, but 
one not exceeding 300° F., then the water 
must be replaced by a saline bath. 
Evaporation by Steam. 

This mode has many advantages over 
all others, not among the least of which 



(Evaporation) 



(Distilling) 



is that with the aid of the generator any 
number of vessels may be heated simul- 
taneously, and in any part of the labora- 
tory, it being only necessary to have con- 
duits of sufficient length to convey the 
steam to them. Moreover, convenient 
stop cocks allovr a regulation of the heat, 
and consequently all danger of injury to 
the evaporating solution is avoided. By 
increasing the pressure of the steam, the 
temperature of the solution is also ele- 
vated. 

Steam is applied through metallic coils 
placed at the bottom of the containing 
vessels, and having an exit pipe leading 
into the neighboring flue, or else by means 
of metallic casings. 

Evaporation Over Sand Baths. 

This mode is much used in analyses 
and for careful evaporations, requiring 
temperatures greater than 212°, and yet 
not so high as those given by the naked 
fire. The position and arrangement of 
the vessels are as directed under the head 
Sand Baths. 

Evaporation by Heated Air. 

This mode is admirably adapted for the 
inspissation of the natural juices of plants 
or for preparing dry extracts. It is also 
applicable to the completion of evapora- 
tions which have been carried as far as is 
safe over the naked fire. Porcelain plates 
or panes of window glass are the vessels 
used, and a stove or apartment for their 
reception heated from 95 to 110°, with a 
free draught passing through are the 
means of obtaining the required tempera- 
ture. The juice evaporates either to thin 
scales or else to a spongy mass, as in the 
case of tannin extracted by ether, and as 
soon as it reaches dryness, the plates or 
panes are to be withdrawn, and their con- 
tents removed with a spatula. 

Evaporation Over the Naked Fire. 

The tendency of many substances to de- 
composition over fire, especially organic, 
even when in solution, renders this mode 
inapplicable save when the solvent and 
substance dissolved are both inalterable 
below the boiling point of the former. It 
is resorted to for expediting evaporations, 
but otherwise is far more inconvenient 
than steam, because of its affording less 
facility for the regulation of the heat and 
requiring greater attention. The •contain- 
ing vessel should be placed over a furnace 
of small dimensions, and its contents con- 
tinually stirred with a porcelain spatula 
— this precaution preventing decomposi- 
tion or carbonization, provided the tem- 



perature is not allowed to exceed the boil- 
ing point of the solvent. 

In analysis and other processes, the 
heating implement is generally the gas or 
spirit lamp. The capsule filled to about 
2-3 its depth with liquid, being placed in 
position, the flame is applied gradually and 
maintained just low enough to prevent 
ebullition ; and in order to facilitate the 
process, and at the same time to allay 
turbulence, it should be frequently stirred 
with a glass rod. The same directions 
apply when the operation is performed in 
a beaker glass, as is done in some analytic 
experiments. A cover of white paper pre- 
vents access of dust without retarding the 
process, but care must be taken that the 
contents of the vessel be not ejected 
against it, thus causing a loss. In evapor- 
ating to dryness, towards the end of the 
process the flame must be so managed as 
to impart a uniform heat to all parts of 
the thickened solution. The interposition 
of a very thin plate of sheet iron between 
the flame of the lamp and the bottom of 
the heating vessel is an additional means 
of preventing spirting. These precautions 
and constant stirring will prevent the loss 
of particles which is liable to occur upon 
disengagement of the last portions of 
liquid. If the liquid drops a powder dur- 
ing the operation, the vessel must be in- 
clined, and in order to prevent spirting, 
heated above the deposit. 

Distilling. 

Small Apparatus for General Purposes. 
— (a) All ordinary distilling apparatus 
consists of 2 parts — one in which the heat 
is applied to the body to be distilled and 
vaporized (called the "still"), and the 
other into which the vapors that are 




A Simple Distilling Apparatus. 



[123] 



(Distilling) 



(Distilling) 



formed enter in order to undergo the cool- 
ing that condenses them (termed the "con- 
denser"). One of the simplest forms of 
distilling apparatus used in laboratories 
consists of a still into which is intro- 
duced the liquid to be distilled, and which 
is placed upon a furnace. The neck of 
this fits into that of a sphere whose open- 
ing must be wide enough to allow the 
orifice of the ' still to reach the spherical 
part of the receiver. Finally, the sphere 
dips into a vessel full of cold water, and 
is cooled on its external surface by a 
wet cloth. The heated mixture begins to 
boil, and its vapors, escaping from the 
retort, cool and condense upon the cold 
Slides of the spherical receiver. This lat- 
ter serves at once as a condenser and a 
vessel for receiving the distilled product. 
In the beginning, the empty receiver 
weighs less than the volume of water that 
it displaces, and tends to float. This may 
be remedied by using a sufficiently heavy 
ring of lead into which the neck of the 
receiver may be introduced, and which 
may rest upon the latter's bulge. Upon 
fixing a similar ring under the receiver, 
the latter will be prevented from turning 
laterally and even from getting broken. 




Small Apparatus for General Purposes. 

The water in the external vessel is re- 
newed so as to keep it cold. 

A simple arrangement of this kind is 
not adapted for materials that have a 
low boiling point, since a large proportion 
of the vapor escapes, and makes its exit 
through the neck of a receiver, which is 
kept hot by the vapors coming from the 
still. The following, which is just about 
as simple, is a much more perfect arrange- 
ment. 

The narrow part of the still is fixed 
into the neck of a long, tubular receiver 
by means of a cork which it traverses. 
This annular cork exactly closes the space 
between the neck of the still and that of 
the receiver. On the other side, in the 
tubulure of the receiver, there is fixed by 
means of a cork, perforated and arranged 



like the preceding, a long and narrow 
glass tube. 

When the still has been filled with 
the substance to be distilled, and placed 
upon a furnace covered with wire gauze, 
the receiver is immersed, as above stated, 
in cold water. The vapors that are 
formed become cooled in traversing the 
elongtated neck of the receiver, and are 
thoroughly condensed in the immersed 
part, provided the ebullition is not too 
rapid. In this latter case, the narrow 
tube, which presents the only open orifice, 
becomes heated, and indicates to the 
operator that the fire must be moderated. 

The inconvenience of every apparatus 
of this kind is that the vapors which 
enter the receiver are not compelled to 
impinge against the sides, and may go 
directly to the exit-tube, or, in other 
words, the refrigeration is not methodical. 
Moreover, the refrigerating surface con- 
tinues to diminish in measure as the re- 
ceiver fills. Finally, if the receiver 
breaks, the entire distilled product comes 
in contact v^^ith the water. Despite these 
disadvantages, the rapidity with which 
such apparatus may be arranged, causes 
them to be frequently employed. 

The use of refrigerators permits of a 
more exact and methodical condensation 
of the vapors. These are arranged as fol- 
lows : The 2 orifices are placed in con- 
tact by means of a rubber tube, 3 to 4 
cm. in length, into one end of which is 
introduced the neck of the retort^ a, and 
into the other tube of the refrigerator. 
The latter being held in an inclined posi- 
tion by means of a clamp, a current of 
water traversing it from top to^ bottom, 
and a bent tube being adapted to its lower 
extremity, the free extremity of the bent 
one is fixed into the flask that is to col- 
lect the product. We may also suppress 
the central tube of the refrigerator in the 
flask, b, kept inclined. To facilitate this 
arrangement, the neck of the retort is 
cut at a point where it has the same ex- 
ternal diameter as the tube of the re- 
frigerator, and is then edged with a flame. 




Type of Laboratory Condenser. 



124] 



(Distilling) 



(Distilling) 



Again, if the difference between the dia- 
meters is considerable, we may, by means 
of a flame, draw out slightly the one of 
the two tubes that is the larger, and cut 
it at the proper point to obtain an 
equality in the diameters. Finally, we 
may solder to the extremity of the re- 
frigerator a cylindrical tube, 2 or 3 cm. 
in diameter and 6 or 7 in, length, into 
which is fitted the neck of the retort pre- 
viously provided with a cork. This latter 
contains an aperture running in the 
direction of its axis, and the whole is 
arranged so as to form a tight joint. 

When the substance distilled attacks 
cork or rubber, the neck of the retort is 
drawn out to a suflBcient length to allow 
the tube that terminates it to enter the 
refrigerator to some depth. The rubber 
with which the two parts of the appai-atus 
are connected is thus nearly out of the 
range of the vapors. 




Tin Can Still. 



(b) One of the simplest forms of still 
consists of a tin can or bottle in which 
the water is boiled, and to this a tin tube 
is adapted by means of a cork, one end 
of this tin tube terminating in a coil 
passing through a tub or other vessel of 
cold water. A gas burner, as shown, .is a 
convenient source of heat, and in order to 
insure a complete condensation of the 
vapor, the water in the cooling tub must 
be changed now and again. 

(c) Sometimes the vapor is condensed 
by being allowed to play against the in- 
side of a conical cover which is adapted 
to a saucepan, and is kept cool by the 
external application of cold water; and 
in this case the still takes the form repre- 
sented by our next engravings ; the con- 
densed water trickles down on the inside 
of the cone, and flows out at the spout. 

(d) An extemporized arrangement of a 
similar character may be made by passing 
a tobacco pipe through the side of a tin 
saucepan as shown in the engraving, and 
inverting the lid of the saucepan ; if the 

[1 




Simple Externally-Condensed Still. 

lid is now kept cool by frequent changes 
of water inside it, and the pipe is proper- 
ly adjusted, so as to catch the drippings 
from the convex side of the lid, a con- 
siderable quantity of distilled water may 
be collected in an hour or so. 




(e) The apparatus shown works ad- 
mirably, and is very convenient, a is a 
common tin saucepan, with a small hole 
in the side, for a tobacco pipe ; b, a 
"steamer," on top, with a bottom like an 
inverted cone, 1 in, of wire being soldered 
at the apex. 




Tap-Cooled Still. 

A gas jet (Bunsen's, if possible) 'boils 
the water in the saucepan ; the ascending 
steam is condensed on the lower surface 
of the steamer, runs down to the point of 



25] 



(Distilling) 



(Distilling) 



the wire, down the pipe into the bottle. 
A small jet of cold water keeps b cool. 




An Old Fashioned But Efficient Still. 

(f ) The arrangement shown is one that 
may readily be adapted to, and is special- 
ly suited for, the old fashioned stills 
which are in frequent use among pharma- 
cists for the purpose of distilling water. 
The idea is extremely simple, but thor- 
oughly efficient in actual practice. The 
still is thin copper, 2 gal. capacity, and 
the condenser is the usual worm sur- 
rounded with cold water. 

Tinctures, Extracts, etc. 

(a) A very convenient and complete 
still is shown herewith. The body holds 




Tincture and Extract Still. 

over 3 gal. ; the condenser has 7 straight 
tubes surrounded with the cold water in- 
troduced by a rubber from a hydrant or 
bucket of water placed higher than the 
still, and carried off as it becomes warmed 
by another tube as indicated by the ar- 
rows. By the siphon arrangemeht shown 
in the cut, it is possible to feed the still 
from a reservoir while distillation is in 

[1 



progress, thus using a 3-gal. still where, 
a much larger one would have been nec- 
essary. The still may be set into a kettle 
partly filled with water, and thus used 
as a water bath, or a shallow dish, with 
flat rim, which accompanies the still, may 
be placed between the two brass ring 
bands and clamped securely. 

(b) Stevens arranged the apparatus as 
shown for continuous distillation. As 
soon as the water passes out of the boiler, 



•T — ^ ^ 


^ 


% 


\A 


t\ 


^h 


B* 






a^-^---^ 






cu 






^^""^ 


^*^ 





Apparatus for Continuous Distillation, 

a, the float, b, lowers, letting a fresh sup- 
ply 'of water from the condenser, c, 
through d, thereby keeping the water in 
the boiler at a constant level. This avoids 
the necessity of adding a large quantity 
of cold water at once, the effect of which 
would be to reduce the temperature of 
the water below the boiling point. 

Cold water is supplied to the condenser 
through e, and as it becomes heated and 
rises to the top, it is carried off through 
f. The boiler and condenser are joined 
at g. 

By leaving out the float and closing the 
inlet, d, with a cork, it can be used for 
distilling other liquids. 

The apparatus is not patented, and 
should any pharmacist desire to make one 
for his own use, he can do so. 

(c) The distilling apparatus repre- 
sented herewith is intended primarily for 
the use of pharmaceutical chemists or 
druggists, but it possesses features which 
will recommend it to many who have need 
of a trustworthy and quick-acting still. 
The wide delivery tube is a useful feature, 
allowing as it does for the accumulation 
of vapor, and permitting the introduction 
of the hand. The body of the still is^ of 
wrought iron or copper, with a lid fitting 
01 ground edges, and held together _ by 
s^rew clan ps, as seen in the engraving. 
A gauge is fitted to show the quantity of 
26] 



(Distilling) 



(Distilling) 



liquid in the still. The cendenser consists 
of a number of glass tubes, which, if they 
are 1 in. diameter and 24 in. long, expose 
a surface of 264 in., while that of the 
surrounding cylinder is only 188% in. 
The ends of the condenser tubes are drawn 
together and tapered, as shown in cut, to 
permit, if desired, the collection of the 
distillate in a narrow-mouthed bottle. The 
advantage gained by this apparatus, aside 
from the general one of convenience, is 
thus seen to be in the notable increase 
of condensing surface it exposes, which to 
that extent increases the effectiveness of 
the device, i.e. its rapidity of action. 
Compared with a Liebig condenser of 
siimilar dimensions, this apparatus ex- 
poses probably 3 times as much condens- 
ing surface. The idea of a tubular con- 
denser, employed in the manner set forth, 
is, in the opini'cn of the American Journal 
of Pharmacy, an excellent one, that may 
find useful imitation in the chemical lab- 
oratory and elsewhere. The device illus- 




Remington's Still. 

trated and descr'Ibed was invented by 
Joseph P. Remington, whose recommen- 
dation of its merits is based upon a con- 
tinuous use of it for years. 

(d) Flowers, Plants or Seeds. — To ob- 
tain the essential oils, from flowers, 
plants or seeds, the oleiferous material is 
placed in an iron, copper or glass still, of 
1 to 1,000 gal. capacity, and is covered 
with water; superposed is a dome-shaped 
lid, terminating in a coil of pipe, placed 
in a vessel of cold water, and protruding 
therefrom with a tap at the end. On boil- 
ing the contents of the still, the essential 
oil passes over the steam, and ii> condensed 
with it in the receiver ; the oil and water 
separate on standing. A great improve- 
ment, introduced by Drew, Hey wood and 



Barron, is the use of a steam-jacketed 
still, as shown. Steam is supplied from 
a boiler by the pipe, a, into the jacket, 
b; within the head of the still is 
fixed a "rouser," c, a double-branched 
stirrer curved to the form of the pan, and 
having a chain attached and made to drag 
over the bottom, the whole being set in 
motion by means of the handle, d. The 
still is charged, and nearly filled with 




Steam Jacketed Still. 

water; the head is then bolted on, steam 
is admitted into the jackets, the contents 
are well stirred, and soon the oil and 
steam are carried up the pipe, e, con- 
densed in the refrigerator, f, and let out 
at g into the receiver, h. Here the oil 
and water separate, and escape by differ- 
ent taps. In the illustration it is sup- 
posed that the oil obtained is heavier than 
water ; it will then sink, and be drawn 
out by the lower tap, i, and as son as the 
water reaches the level of the upper tap, 
k, it will flow into the siphon-funnel, 1, 
and thence into the still. Thus the same 
water is repeatedly used in the still. The 
pipe, m, conveys cold water into the re- 
frigerator f ; the water escapes as it be- 
comes hot by the pipe n. When the oil 
distilled is lighter than water, the taps, 
i k, exchange duties Before commencing 
operations the siphon, 1, is filled with 
water to prevent the escape of vapor. 
Spirit. 

(a) The distillation of spirit is per- 
formed for the purpose of separating the 
alcohol more or less from the water. The 
boiling point of water at the ordinary 



[127] 



(Distilling) 



(Precipitation) 



standard pressures of the atmosphere, 
equal to 30 in. of mercury, is 212° F. 
(100° C), that of alcohol 173.1° P. 
(78.5° C). At the sea-level, the press- 
ure of the atmosphere may frequently 
vary between 28.5 and 30.5 in. ; the boil- 
ing points of water corresponding to these 
temperatures are 210° F. and 213° F. In- 
deed, changes in the weather may cause 
the boiling point of water to vary as 
much as 5° F. in our climate. These 
alterations in pressure would cause cor- 
responding changes in the boiling point 
of alcohol. If we gradually raise the 
temperature of alcoholic fluids to a point 
when vapors are freely formed, it is ob- 
served that though there is a continuous 
absorption of heat, yet the liquid does 
not increase in temperature. The heat 
which is absorbed during the first period 
is doing work of a different character 
from that employed subsequently. There 
are two phases in the process, and two 
different kinds of work performed by the 
heat employed in boiling even a kettle of 
water. 

The first phase is indicated by a rise 
of temperature from 60 to 212° F. ; the 
second phase by a change of state, from 
that of a liquid at 212° F. to a vapor 
at the same temperature. The quantities 
of heat required by different liquids in 
these changes varies greatly, but the va- 
riation is greatest when they pass through 
the second phase. Thus 1 lb. of steam at 
212° F., if converted into water at 212° 
F., will give up heat sufficient to raise 
996 lb. of water from 60 to 61° F. The 
heat rendered up by 1 lb. of alcohol vapor 
at 173° F. during condensation to liquid 
at 173° F., will heat 374.9 lb. of water 
from 60 to 61° F. These figures are suf- 
ficient to show that a small quantity of 
steam will boil a large quantity of alco- 
hol. Stills of improved construction de- 
pend upon this principle. 

When a mixture of alcohol and water 
is distilled, the liquid will not boil con- 
stantly at 173° F. until all the alcohol 
has passed over, but will rise in tempera- 
ture gradually throughout the distillation 
until 212° F. have been reached. The dis- 
tillate, if separated into fractions boiling 
between fixed points, consists of a series 
of mixtures of alcohol and water in defi- 
nite proportions. The mixtures richest 
in alcohol come over first ; that is to say, 
at the lowest temperature. 

The latent heat of the vapor of a liquid 
with a high boiling point can be made 
to boil a liquid with a lower boiling point. 
For instance, steam at 212° F. can boil 
alcohol at 173° F., and alcohol at 173° 



F. in turn can boil ether at 94.8" F. 
With a simple still, strong alcohol can be 
obtained from wash by repeated distilla- 
tion only. Woulffe realized the fact that 
this wasteful and tedious process could 
be dispensed with by connecting together 
a number of rectifying chambers in such 
a manner that the vapor driven off from 
the chamber nearest the fire should be 
condensed in the second, and by the heat 
given out by its condensation cause the 
more volatile portions of the liquid of 
the second to distil into the third cham- 
ber, and those of the third into the fourth, 
and so on, until a sufficient degree of con- 
centration is attained. 

IV 

PRECIPITATION AND SEPARA- 
TION 
Edulcoration. 

The affusion of water on any substance 
for the purpose of removing the portion 
soluble in that liquid. Edulcoration is 
usually performed by agitating or tritur- 
ating the article with water, and remov- 
ing the latter, after subs^idence, by de- 
cantation or filtration. It is the method 
commonly adopted to purify precipitates 
and other powders which are insoluble in 
water. The washing bottle is a most use- 
ful instrument for the edulcoration of 
precipitates. 

Precipitation. 

By precipitation we are to understand 
a process of separating a solid substance 
from a solution by the action of chemi- 
cals, heat, or light. The precipitate easily 
drops to the bottom of the receptacle, al- 
though sometimes it may rise or be held 
in suspension. The solid substance is 
called the precipitate ; the added agent 
which produces the effect is called the 
precipitant, while the liquid which re- 
mains in the vessel is called the superna- 
tant liquid. Precipitation is one of the 
most valuable aids to the analytical chem- 
ist, and is constantly employed, but is 
also of great use in the arts. It is some- 
times used to bring the substance into a 
powdered state ; again, it is used for puri- 
fication, or to separate substances which 
are insoluble in the liquid. It is some- 
times necessary to heat the solution in 
order to obtain precipitation. Some prep- 
arations, such as silver salts, are precipi- 
tated by the action of light. A special 
precipitating jar is inexpensive, and is 
very convenient. The precipitated matter 
is usually collected with the aid of a fil- 
ter and a filter paper. 



[128] 



(Colation) 



(Clnrifir'ation) 



Straining. 

Straining is best accomplished through 
some textile fabric, as felt, muslin. Can- 
ton flannel, gauze, etc. Felt strainers are 
particularly recommended where chemical 
work is being done, but for the amateur's 
use they are apt to be expensive, as the 
felt takes up a great deal of the odor of 
the material. Canton flannel is cheap, 
and the bleached Canton flannel is recom- 
mended. One or two funnels or tunnels 
should be provided. The white enameled 
ones, which are imported from Sweden, 
are particularly recommended. Hard-rub- 
ber funnels are good for certain purposes ; 
also copper funnels. Special funnels are 
provided for hot filtration, as shown in 
one of our engravings. This is particu- 
larly recommended when we deal with 
preparations containing wax, jellies, oint- 
ments, etc. The jacketed hot-water fun- 
nel is perhaps the most convenient means 
of obtaining heat. Steam may also be 
used, if available, and is both cheap and 
handy. 

Colation. 

Colation or straining is a process which 
does not differ from filtration in princi- 
ple, but' the term is applied to the re- 
moval of insoluble particles of a relative- 
ly large size by passing the liquid through 
a medium of coarser texture than filter 
paper. The ordinary straining media are 
felt, flannel, muslin and calico, through 
which materials the liquid will flow with 
considerable rapidity. 

A seamless felt straining bag is illus- 
trated. A strainer of this kind is particu- 
larly useful for straining large quantities 
of syrups or liquid extracts. When in 
use it is suspended by means of tapes over 
a suitable receiver, or is supported by a 
frame, as is shown in the figure. 

Our next engraving illustrates a form 
of strainer which is used when bulky pre- 
cipitates are required to be filtered, 
washed and drained. Ferric hydroxide is 
precipitated in large quantities for the 
manufacture of the scale preparations of 
iron, and it is conveniently separated and 
washed on a piece of strong calico 
stretched over, and fastened by means of 
nails, to a rectangular wooden frame sup- 
ported on short wooden legs. In this case 
it should be noted that the precipitate is 
wanted; the filtrate is allowed to run to 
waste. 

Small quantities of liquid — an infusion 
or decoction, for example — ^may be strained 
through a piece of muslin or calico 

[1 




Straining 




Large Strainer 



stretched over the top of an ordinary fun- 
nel. 

Clarification. 

Clarification is the process of separat- 
ing the suspended matter contained in a 
liquid or semi-liquid substance without 
recourse to filtration. It may be effected 
in a variety of ways. The official method 
adopted for the clarification of honey, the 
viscid nature of which renders ordinary 
filtration somewhat impracticable, is the 
application of heat. The honey is heated 
on a water bath in an open, shallow dish, 
under which treatment it becomes much 
29] 



( Centrif ugation ) 



Centrif ugation ) 



more fluid, and the suspended particles of 
solid matter rise to the surface, or sink, 
according to their specific gravity. By 
skimming, or by straining through flan- 
nel while the honey is still hot, the solid 
foreign particles can be easily separated 
out. In the same way, vegetable juices 
can be clarified by heat, albuminous ma- 
terial forming a ooagulum which can be 
separated by filtration. 

Certain liquids which are difficult to 
filter, and which do not yield a satisfac- 
tory filtrate, are sometimes clarified by 
the use of white of egg or of gelatine. 
In the former case a relatively small 
quantity of the white of egg is thoroughly 
mixed with the turbid liquid, and the 
whole is then heated to about 80° C, at 
which temperature white of egg coagu- 
lates. The particles which rendered the 
liquid turbid are enclosed in the coagu- 
lum formed, which is easily removed 
from the liquid by the ordinary process 
of straining. Gelatine is useful, particu- 
larly when the turbidity of a liquid is 
due to tannin bodies, with which the gel- 
atine readily combines to form an insol- 
uble gelatine tannate, which can be read- 
ily removed by filtration through paper or 
by straining through calico. 

Centrifugation. 

By centrifugal force is meant the force 
exerted by any whirling body. A solid 




Water-Drive Centrifuge 

body contained in suspension in a liquid 
can be readily separated by rapid rota- 
tion, the heavier particles of solid always 
tending to fly to the outer rim of the re- 
volving ring of fluid. Centrifugation is 
thus another means of separating a solid 
from a liquid, and is a method especially 
useful when dealing with small quanti- 
ties of liquid which contain in suspension 
minute quantities of a solid body which 
it is difficult to collect satisfactorily on a 
filter paper. 

Centrifugal machines ~re constructed 
to various patterns, but the simple form 




Centrifuge 



illustrated will serve to show the prin- 
ciple of their construction. They consist 
essentially of two or four, or sometimes 
more, glass tubes (G) enclosed in metal 
tube holders (F), the tubes themselves 
being constructed with a somewhat coni- 
cal-shaped bottom. The tubeholders are 
swung upoQ a horizontal axis (E), which 
can be rotated at a rate of from 2,000 to 
3,000 revolutions a minute. The whole 
apparatus is clamped firmly to the labo- 
ratory bench, as shown in the figure. 
When in use, the tubes are filled with the 
liquid so that they are equally balanced, 
and the machine is turned rapidly for a 
few minutes, at the end of which time 
the solid particles vrill be found compacted 
together at the bottom of the glass tube, 
leaving a clear layer of supernatant li- 
quid, which can be poured off. 

A centrifuge is used in the laboratory 
for the rapid determination of fat in milk. 
A measured quantity of the milk is put 
into a graduated centrifuge tube and^ a 
little amylic atcohol, hydrochloric acid, 
and some concentrated sulphuric acid are 
added, in order to secure a better separa- 
tion of the fat. A second tube, contain- 
ing a similar quantity of liquid, is placed 



[130] 



(Separation of Liquids) 



(Filtration) 



on the opposite side of the machine in 
order to secure a proper balance, and the 
apparatus is then rotated for one or two 
minutes, at the end of which cime all the 
fat will have collected in the neck of the 




Separating Funnel 

tube, and the percentage can be directly 
calculated. The centrifuge is also ex- 
tremely useful for collecting for micro- 
scopical examination the deposit in a 
small quantity of liquid, the deposit in a 
sample of urine being best collected in 
this way. 

The Separation of Immiscible Liquids. 

The separation of two liquids which are 
more or less insoluble in one another is 
an operation important in many pharma- 
ceutical and manufacturing processes. 
When relatively large quantities of im- 
misoible liquids have to be separated, a 

[ 



tubulured jar or a siiphon may be used, 
as has been aiveady described under De- 
CANTATION ; but for quantities of a few 
ounces some other means must be adopted. 
The alkaloidal assay of the galenical 
preparations frequently necessitates the 
separation of a layer of ether or chloro- 
form or other organic liquid from a 
watery solution with which it is immis- 
cible. In the assay of opium, for exam- 
ple, a layer of mixed alcohol and ether has 
to be separated from an aqueous layer, 
and in this case the Pharmacopoeia di- 
rects the use of a pipette. A pipette, as 
shown, consists of an elongated bulbed 
glass tube, open at both ends, the lower 
end being drawn out into a narrow ori- 
fice. It is used by dipping the lower end 
under the surface of the top layer of li- 
quid and applying suction with the mouth 
at the upper end of the tube. The bulb 
may be large enough to hold from 5 to 
50 mils, and when as 'much as possible 
of the layer has been drawn into the 
bulb the moistened tip of the forefinger 
is placed firmly over the upper end of 
the tube, the liquid being thus kept from 
flowing out until the finger is removed. 
A glass syringe may be used for the same 
purpose as a pipette, but it is somewhat 
more clumsy. 

Separating Funnels. 

A more convenient means of separating 
layers of immiscible liquids is by the use 
of a glass separating funnel. An elongat- 
ed pear-shaped separator, as illustrated, 
is a good form by means of which two li- 
quids can be separated with greater ac- 
curacy than with a separator of a cylin- 
drical shape. 

For the separation of two liquids neith- 
er of which is particularly volatile, an 
ordinary glass funnel, the neck of which 
is provided with a stopcock, is sometimes 
used, but a separator of this pattern is 
quite unsuitable for assay processes, since 
it is impossible to shake the two layers 
together before they are set aside to sep- 
arate. 

Decolorization. 

Decoloration is a process of rendering 
colored liquids colorless, and this is ac- 
complished by the aid of animal charcoal 
or bone black. Decolorization may be ac- 
complished in an ordinary filtering funnel 
or in a percolator. 

Filtration and Other Processes of Sepa- 
ration. 
Filtration is a process of separating d 
liquid from solid matter mechanically sua* 
131 ] 



(Filtration) 



(Filtration) 



pended in it, by passing it through some 
porous medium which does not allow the 
solid particles to pass through. In some 
cases it has for its object the collection 
of the suspended matter; in others it is 
used for obtaining the liquid in a clear 
state. Filtration is a simple process in 
principle, but in manufacturing, as well 
as in processes on a smaller scale, where 
liquids are employed, there is perhaps no 
operation of wider application, hence it 
is of great importance that the process 
shall be carried out in an economical and 
expeditious manner. Among the sub- 
stance^ which are used as filtering media 
are various kinds of cloth, flannel, un- 
glazed porous paper, engineer's waste, ab- 
sorbent cotton wool, glass wool, asbestos, 
sand and charcoal. For small quantities 
of a liquid which filters easily, and in 
which the suspended matter is in coarse 
particles, a pledget of absorbent cotton 
wool placed in the throat of a funnel is 
often sufficient to produce 'a satisfactory 
filtrate. For e'xtensive laboratory proc- 
esses, however, the latter simple device is 
seldom of much service, for the small ex- 
tent of filtering surface will soon lead to 
imperfect filtration, or possibly to com- 
plete blocking of the filter. The form of 
filter used, and the character of the filter- 
ing medium, depends not only upon the 
nature of the liquid to be treated, but 
also upon the amount of liquid that is re- 
quired to be filtered. 

Filterinff Media. — Of the filtering media 
in common use, fine porous unglazed pa- 
per is the most universal for small opera- 
tions, a piece of paper of suitable Size 
being folded into a cone and fitted into 
a funnel. The funnels used for support- 
ing filter papers are made of glass, glazed 
earthenware, or of metal, and those which 
are intended for rapid filtration are usu- 
ally deeply ribbed or fluted on the inside, 
the space between the filter paper and the 
glass permitting a free passage of the fil- 
tered liquid. The same end is sometimes 
attained by placing thin glass rods or 
quills between the filter paper and the 
sides of the funnel. Filtering paper may 
be obtained in many qualities, the best 
quality consisting of practically pure cel- 
lulose. For the majority of purposes, 
white filter paper should be used, and 
this is made from pure flax fiber. The 
gray paper, on the other hand, contains 
a varying amount of wool, and although 
on account of its low cost it is used for 
the filtration of some galenical prepara- 
tions, it is liable to color certain solu- 
tions, particularly alkaline ones, yellow. 
Suah paper frequently contains also a 



considerable amount of chlorides, calcium 
carbonate, and iron salts, all of which 
are liable to pass into solution. For ana- 
lytical work, particularly in ignition proc- 
esses, a Swedish filter paper of very fine 
quality is necessary; such filter papers, 
in the course of preparation, are washed 
with hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids, 
and by this means are rendered practical- 
ly free from mineral impurities, and yield, 
on ignition, a very minute quantity of 
ash. 

The suitability of filter paper for ordi- 
nary pharmaceutical purposes may be de- 
termined by the application of a few sim- 
ple tests. Distilled water which has been 
passed through the paper should leave no 
residue on evaporation, showing that the 
paper contains no soluble mineral sub- 
stances. Similarly diluted hydrochloric 
acid, after passing through the filter pa- 
per, should g'ive none of the reactions of 
the alkaline earths, while the paper should 
not blacken with ammonium sulphide, 
proving the absence of many of the met- 
als ; nor should it be colored by a solu- 
tion of salicylic acid, which would indi- 
cate the presence of iron. 

Methods of Folding Filtering Papers. — • 
Filtering paper is sold cut into circles of 
varying diameter, and since these circles 
merely require doubling for use, they are 
much more convenient than the square 
sheets of paper, which must be trimmed 
after folding. Plain filters are made by 
doubling the circle of paper in half to 
form a semicircle, and then folding it 
again in half, so as to form a triangle, 
with a convex base. This, when opened 
out (Fig. 1), should fit exactly to the 
sides of a properly constructed funnel, 
the sides of which should be inclined at 
an angle of 60°. A filter paper folded 
in this way is good enough for many pur- 




Fig. 1 

poses, but it has the disadvantage of pre- 
senting three thicknesses of paper to one" 
half of the funnel and only one thickness 
to the other half; while, assuming that 
the funnel used has plain and not fluted 
sides, the filtration will not proceed with 



[ 132 J 



(Filtration) 



(Filtration) 



he "plaited filter" affords a means of 
hering rapid filtration, and at the 
e time it overcomes the objection of 
unequal distribution of the paper on 
nuch rapidity, since the sides of the 
2r will fit closely to the glass. 




sides of the funnel. The method of 
ing a plaited filter can be best ex- 
led by the help of diagrams. The 
e of paper must first be folded twice 
lirected for the plaia filter, but hav- 
.^o made the crease DO (Fig. 2), the pa- 
per is opened out again into a semi-cir- 
cular form. It is next folded so that 
DB lies over the crease DC, and DA is 
wise made to lie over DC. This oper- 
-n will produce the creases DE and 
(as in Fig. 2). Next, DB must be 
>ed over to DE and also over to DF, 
in the same way DA must be folded 
r to DF and DB. In this way, when 
paper is flattened out, it will be 
:ked by seven creases, radiating from 
center, D (as shown in Fig. 2), and 
semicircle will be divided by these 
ases into eight segments. Up to the 
sent all these creases have been made 
m the same direction, and now, to com- 
plete the filter, each segment must be di- 
vided by another crease made in a direc- 
tion opposite to those already made. To 
effect this, DB is folded back so that it 
lies under DO, on the opposite face of 
the semicircle ; in other words, the new 
crease DL (Fig. 3) is in an opposite di- 



r— i 




Eig. 3 




rection to any of the other creases pre- 
viously made. In a similar fashion, DGr 
is folded back so that it lies under DE, 
producing a new crease, DM (Fig. 3), 
which has the same direction as the crease 
DL, but is in an opposite direction to 
DG or DE. This process is repeated until 
the semicircle is divided into sixteen seg- 
ments by fifteen creases, the eight new 
creases (illustrated by dotted lines) all 
being in an opposite direction to the first 
seven creases. The paper can now be 
opened out, as shown in Fig. 4, and it 
will be found divided into thirty-two seg- 
ments, two of which, situated opposite 
to one another, have both edges in the 
same direction, and in order to prevent 
these two segments from lying flat against 
the glass when the paper is placed in a 
funnel a new crease, pointing inward, 
should be made in each segment so that 
each of these two segments is divided into 
two smaller segments, bringing the total 
up to thirty-four. When placed in a fun- 
nel the paper will not fit closely to the 
glass, and thus a free passage of the fil- 
tered liquid is possible, while at the same 
time the entire surface of the paper will 
be exposed to the liquid. 

When plaiting a filter, care should be 
taken not to crease the paper down to 
the extreme center of the circle (D), oth- 
erwise the apex of the filter may be so 
weakened as to break with the weight 
of the liquid poured upon it. The weak- 
est part of a filter paper, whether plain 
or plaited, is always the extreme apex, 
and various suggestions have been made 
with a view to overcoming this weakness. 
One method is to dip the apex into strong 
nitric or sulphuric acid ; the latter acid 
converts the paper into parchment paper, 
and thus renders it impervious to the pas- 
sage of fluids, but the former treatment 
merely toughens the fiber of the paper. 
In either case care must be taken to wash 
the filter free from all traces of acid. The 
apex of a filter may also be supported by 
a small cone made of platinum foil, or 
more simply by means of a smaP'^r filter 
paper folded and placed in the fui .al first, 

33] 



(Filtration) 



(Filtration) 



or a pledget of cotton wool may be used 
for the same purpose. When filtering 
large quantities of liquid the paper is 
sometimes supported with calico to avoid 
breakage, the cloth is usually folded up 
with th& pai>er, the double filter being 




Fig. 5 

placed in the funnel in the usual way. 
The fact that the apex of a filter paper 
is always a source of weakness has led 
to the adoption of another method of fold- 
ing filter papers. The circle of paper is, 
as usual, first folded into a semicircle. 
Next, EB (Fig. 6) is folded over, with 
the crease in the position marked by the 
line EH ; the point E, it will be noted, 
is not the center of the circle of filter 
paper. The paper is now turned completely 
over, and DA is folded over in the posi- 
tion marked by the line, DF, the crease, 





DF, being, of course, in the opposite di- 
rection to the first crease, EH. When the 
paper is opened out (Fig. 5), it will fit 
into a funnel having the proper angle of 
60°, while the apex will be strengthened 
by the presence of a double thickness of 
paper. 

A liquid should never be poured in a 
sudden stream on to the apex of a filter 
paper, but should always be poured gently 
against the side of the filter, where, if 
dealing with small quantities, it may be 
conveniently directed by means of a glass 
rod (as shown in Fig. 7). In this fig- 
ure the student should note the small strip 
of paper (A) inserted between the neck 



Fig. 7 



of the flask and the funnel tube. This 
precaution is necessary if the end of the 
funnel fits closely into the receiver, in 
order that there may be a free escape 
of air as the filtered liquid enters the 
receiver. A filter paper placed in a fun- 
nel should never reach above the rim of 
the funnel, for, if such be the case, the 
liquid will be sucked by capillary attrac- 
tion into the projecting edges, and there 
will be considerable loss by evaporation 
from the exposed edges. Even when the 
filter paper does not protrude over the 
rim of the funnel there is always some 
loss by evaporation, especially when the 
liquid is a particularly volatile one, and 
the room temperature is high. In order 
to lessen the loss by evaporation during 
a slow filtration, a piece of plate glass 
may be placed on the top of the funnel. 

Continuous Filtration. — It is frequently 
inconvenient for an operator to give con- 
stant attention to a filtration process, 
hence a "self-feeding" filter is of great 
service. On a small scale, the following 
simple method, illustrated in Fig. 8, works 
well. An inverted Winchester quart, con- 
taining the unfiltered liquid, is arranged 



ri34] 



(Filtration) 



(Filtration) 



at such a heig'lit that the mouth of the 
bottle is in the liquid at the level at which 
it is desired to keep the funnel filled. The 
liquid in the funnel acts as a valve, and 
until air enters the bottle none of the li- 
quid will flow out, since the atmospheric 
pressure is sufficient to support a column 
of water 32 ft. in height. As, however, 
the liquid in the funnel passes through 
the filter, it sinks in due course below the 




Fig. 8 

level of the mouth of the bottle. Air 
will, consequently, enter, and at the same 
time a corresponding amount of the liquid 
will flow from the bottle into the funnel. 
This process will go on automatically un- 
til the bottle is empty. The method is 
similar to that adopted for obtaining a 
continuous supply of menstrum for per- 
colation, a process which has been already 
described. An arrangement which is simi- 
lar in principle to the above has been 
adopted for the continuous washing of a 
precipitate. In Fig. 9 is shown a spe- 
cially constructed tube fitted into the neck 
of an inverted flask by means of an india- 
rubber cork. As in the case of the in- 
verted Winchester, water will flow out of 



the flask at E as soon as the level of the 
liquid in the funnel falls below the level 
of where the side tube joins the main 
tube (C), air entering the flask through 
the open side tube (D). The process is 
continuous so long as any liquid remains 
in the inverted flask. 




Fig. 9 



Ashestos Filters. — In some cases, the 
turbidity of a liquid is due to the sus- 
pension in it of particles of matter so 
minute that their removal is not easily 
effected by the ordinary method of filtra- 
tion through paper. In such cases, a clear 
and bright filtrate can often be obtained 
by shaking up with the turbid liquid some 
substance by means of which the minute 
particles are entangled, anJ can no longer 
pass through the pores of the filtering 
medium. For this purpose, paper pulp, 
prepared from waste scraps of filter pa- 
per, calcium phosphate, kieselguhr, kaolin, 
French chalk, magnesia, and finely shred- 
ded asbestos, have all been recommend- 
ed. Whichever one of these substances 
is chosen, a small quantity of it is well 
shaken up with the liquid to be filtered, 
or the filter itself is first coated by shak- 
ing up a little of the filtering agent with 
water, pouring the mixture over the filter 
and allowing the latter to drain. Usually, 
with eitber method, the first few drops 
of the filtrate are not very clear, hence 



[135] 



(Filtration) 



(Filtration) 



the first runnings should be returned to 
the filter until the filtrate is obtained 
bright. 

For rapidly filtering turbid liquids, es- 
pecially those which are cloudy from the 
presence of minute globules of essential 
oil, the "Seitz" asbestos filter has proved 
successful. The apparatus consists of a 
conical filter of fine brass-wire gauze, suit- 
ably supported. The turbid liquid is 
thoroughly shaken with a small quantity 
of finely shredded asbestos fiber, and is 
then transferred directly to the gauze fil- 
ter. With most liquids, a rapid flow of 
bright, transparent filtrate is obtained. 

Hot Filtration. — It is sometimes neces- 
sary to filter through paper substances, 
such as fats and waxes, which are not li- 
quid at ordinary laboratory temperature. 
In such a case, a rough and ready plan 
is to arrange the funnel over a circular 
low-power gas burner (Fig. 10), but a 
better plan is to use a hot-water jacket 
for the funnel. In Fig. 11 a funnel suit- 
able for hot filtration on a small scale 
is illustrated. The jacket is usually con- 
structed of copper ; at some point around 
the top rim there is an opening (A) 
through which water is introduced, and 
this water is kept at the desired tempera- 
ture by means of a Bunsen gas burner 
or a spirit lamp placed under the pro- 
jecting arm. In practice, the substance 
to be filtered is first melted, and is then 
poured into the funnel, which has previ- 
ously been allowed to become properly 
heated in the copper jacket. As the heat- 
ing is continued, some of the water in 
the jacket will be lost by evaporation, 
since the opeaing, A, must not be closed 




Fig. 10 



on account of the pressure which the 
steam would produce if this were done; 
hence from time to time a little more 
water musit be poured into the jacket. 
Fig. 12 (Shows an improved type. 




Fig. 11 

Accelerated Filtration. — ^The rapidity at 
which filtration is effected depends upon 
several factors, the chief of which are : 
The extent of the filtering surface, the 
viscosity of the liquid, the porosity of the 
filtering medium, and the pressure or force 
by which the liquid is impelled through 
the pores of the filter. 

In filtration as ordinarily carried out, 
the only pressure exerted is that due to 
the liquid itse'lf resting on the filtering 
medium ; but by increasing the ^height of 
this column of liquid the pressure is in- 
creased, and filtration is consequently ac- 
celerated. One of the principles of hy- 
dros-tatics is that the thrust exerted by 
a liquid of given depth on the base of 
the containing vessel is independent of 
the shape of the remaining portion of 
the vessel, hence the column of liquid 
need not be of equal diameter through- 
out in order to produce uniform press- 
ure. 

Acting on this principle, a simple means 
of filtering oils or other liquids has been 
suggested. A filter bag is firmly attached 
to the lower end of a long tube, while 
to the upper end of the tube is fixed a 
funnel, into which is poured the liquid 
that is required to be filtered. Under 
such conditions the pressure exerted is 
that due to the weight corresponding to 
the total height of the column of liquid, 



[136] 



(Filtration) 



(Percolation) 



and the filtrate is forced through the fil- 
ter bag and collected. Instead of a filter 
bag an ordinary inverted funnel may be 
used ; the filtering medium is tied securely 
over the broad mouth of the funnel, it 
being necessary always to support filter 
paper between, layers of calico. 




Fig. 12 

A Device for Rapid Filtration. 

Glass filter rods with a hooked end set 
over the edge of the ordinary funnel, form 
a corn rated support for filter paper, 
which is unaffected by liquids likely to 




Glass Filter Rack 



be filtered through the glass funnel, and 
can be effectually cleaned with a mini- 
mum of labor. 

Percolation. 

This io a kind of filtration, commonly 
called *'by displacement," employed for 
extracting the essence from roots, herbs, 
seeds, barks, etc. It is effected in the 
following manner: It is first necessary 
that the articles to be acted upon should 
be ground in a drug mill to the condition 
of a coarse powder ; then moisten the 
mass thoroughly with alcohol, allowing 
it to "macerate" for 12 hours in a vessel 
well covered. Next is required a hollow 
instrument of cylindrical form, having 
one end shaped like a funnel, so that it 
can be inserted in the neck of a glass 
bottle, and having inside, near the lower 
end, a partition pierced with numerous 
small holes, like the strainer of a French 
coffee pot, which is a simple coffee per- 
colator ; in the absence of such a parti- 
tion, soft cotton, or any insoluble sub- 
stance, may be substituted, and being 
placed in the inside at the lower end of 
the instrument, will answer as well as 
the strainer. Thii:, "-^rument is called a 
percolator. Boullay s filter or percolator 
is usually employed. Macerate the in- 
gredients to be acted upon, for the time 
named, introduce them into the perco- 
lator, and slightly press them upon the 
partition. Any portion of the liquid used 
in the maceration not absorbed by the 
powder should be poured upon the mass 
in the instrument, and allowed to perco- 
late. Now gradually pour into the perco- 
lator sufficient of the alcohol, or other 
liquid to be filtered, to drive before it, 
or "displace," the liquid contained in the 
mass ; the portion introduced must, in 
like manner, be "displaced" by another 
portion, and so on till the required quan- 
tity of filtered liquor is obtained. This 
extract is called a tincture. In case the 
liquor which first passes through should 
be thick and turbid, again introduce it 
into the instrument, being very careful 
not to have the powder too coarse or 
loosely pressed, or it will permit the liquid 
to pass too quickly ; and, on the other 
hand, it should not be too fine or com- 
pact, or it may offer an unnecessary re- 
sistance. Should the liquor flow too rap- 
idly, return it to the instrument, and 
close it beneath for a time, and thus per- 
mit the finer parts of the powder to sub- 
side, and cause a slower percolation. 

The first portion of liquid obtained by 
the method of displacement is always in 
a state of high concentration. In gen- 
137] 



(Percolation) 



(Percolation) 



eral, it is a simple solution of the soluble 
ingredients of the crude drug in the fluid 
employed. But sometimes the solvent, if 
compound, is resolved into its compound 
parts, and the fluid which passes through 
it at any given time is only one of these, 
holding in solution only the most soluble 
parts of the drug. 

Thus, if diluted alcohol be poured over 
the powder of myrrh, in the cylinder of 
the percolator, the fluid which first drops 
into the receiver is a solution of an oily 
consistency, chiefly composed of rosin and 
volatile oil dissolved in alcohol. In like 
manner, when the powder of gallnuts is 
treated in the same way by hydrated sul- 
phuric ether, two layers of fluid are ob- 
tained, one of which is a highly concen- 
trated solution of tannin in the water of 
the ether, and the other a weak solution 
of the same principle in pure ether. In 
all cases, therefore, in which it is not 
otherwise directed, it is absolutely neces- 
sary to agitate the several portions of the 
liquid obtained by percolation together, 
in order to insure a product of uniform 
strength or activity. 

To illustrate the operation of displace- 
ment, and describe an excellent percola- 
tor for making perfume tinctures, we will 
suppose that benzoin is under treatment. 
The apparatus, made wholly of glass, hav- 
ing been arranged, as shown, and a plug 




Percolator for Perfume 

of raw cotton dropped loosely at a, the 
benLoin, in coarse powder, is then poured 
into the portion, b, until it reaches the 
line, c. Alcohol, 05%, is next added until 
it rises to the line, d. As soon as the 
first portion sinks into the benzoin a fresh 
addition must be made ; and thus the suc- 
ceeding relays go on displacing those 
which preceded them without mingling 
Tvith them. Each stratum becomes more 



and more charged with soluble matter as 
it descends ; and when it reaches the bot- 
tom of the mass, under the pressure of 
the superincumbent liquor, it runs out 
saturated. When, by successive additions 
of fresh alcohol, the benzoin under treat- 
ment has become exhausted, the liquid 
passes through the mass and falls into 
the receiver, e, as tasteless and colorless 
as when first poured in. This indicates 
the completion of the process. 

As atmospheric pressure is an impor- 
tant element in the operation, it will not 
answer to shut it off by closing the top 
of the displacer without making some 
compensation ; and, therefore, a communi- 
cation between the upper and lower ves- 
sels is established by means of a latent 
tube arrangement, f. In this manner the 
apparatus is kept close, and the evapora- 
tion of alcohol prevented, while the press- 
ure produced is distributed throughout the 
apparatus, and rendered uniform. As the 
runnings are clear, filtration is rarely 
necessary. The quantity of alcohol thus 
consumed need not be more than sufficient 
to exhaust the material ; and the result- 
ing tincture must therefore be diluted to 
the proper strength. For perfumes, de- 
odorized alcohol must always be used. 

The method of displacement has the ad- 
vantage of expedition, economy, and yield- 
ing products possessing uniformity of 
strength, but it requires considerable ex- 
perience to adapt it to all substances. The 
art rests in properly packing the ingredi- 
ents in the cylinder, some substances re- 
quiring considerable pressure to be used, 
while others, when even lightly packed, 
scarcely permit the fluid to pass through 
them. An excellent plan, applicable to all 
substances, but especially those of a glu- 
tinous or mucilaginous nature, is to mix 
the powder vnth an equal bulk of well 
washed sand before rubbing it up with 
the menstruum. The coarseness of the 
powder must also be attended to. Sub- 
stances that readily become soft and pap- 
py when wetted by the menstruum should 
not be used so fine as those that are more 
woody and fibrous. The method of dis- 
placement answers well for the prepara- 
tion of all tinctures that are not of a 
resinous nature, and for most infusions 
of woody and fibrous substances, as roots, 
woods, harks, leaves, seeds, insects, etc. 
It is especially adapted for the prepara- 
tion of concentrated infusions and es- 
sences, as they may thus be obtained of 
any required strength, without loss, or re- 
quiring concentration by heat, which is 
so destructive to their virtues. 

When Ordinary tinctures are mtvde in 



[ 138 ] 



( Crystallization ) 



(Crystallization) 



large quantities, displacement is never 
likely to supersede maceration on account 
of any practical advantages it may pos- 
sess. If the prescribed directions be duly 
attended to, the process of maceration is 
unexceptionable. The process is more sim- 
ple than the other ; the mode of opera- 
tion more uniform ; it is, in fact, always 
the same ; it requires less of skill and 
dexterity in conducting it ; it requires less 
constant attention during its progress, 
which, in operating on large quantities, 
is a consideration ; and finally, the appa- 
ratus required is less complicated. When, 
however, only small quantities are to be 
made at a time, and kept in stock, the 
adoption of the process of displacement 
will often be found convenient and advan- 
tageous. It offers the means of making 
a tincture in two or three hours, which, 
by the other process, would require as 
many weeks. 

Dialysis. 

This is a process of separating sub- 
stances which do not crystallize from 
those which do, by means of a porous dia- 
phragm which sets in water. The appa- 
ratus which is used is called a dialyzer, 
which consists of a cylinder over whose 
bottom is secured a sheet of parchment 
paper. This sets in a dish of water. The 
liquid which is to be treated is placed 
in the upper dish, and the whole is put 
away for a time, when the separation will 
be found complete. This process is more 
useful in pharmacy than in the arts. 

Crystallization. 

When a body, in the act of passing 
from a liquid or gaseous to a solid state, 
arranges itself in symmetrical forms, the 
process is termed crystallization, and the 
parts of the body so aggregated are called 
crystals. 

By this process we can separate crys- 
tallizable from amorphous substances dis- 
solved in the same menstrua ; purify crys- 
tals from foreign and coloring matters, 
and in qualitative examinations be en- 
abled to determine the composition of bod- 
ies by a reference to the characteristics of 
figure. 

The modes of crystallization are by 
fusion, sublimation, solution and chemicul 
reaction. 

Crystallization hy Fusion. — Sulphur, 
lead, bismuth, tin, antimony, silver, nu- 
merous alloys, anhydrous salts, and other 
fusible substances which are unalteraJble 
by heat, are crystallizable by fusion. To 
this end they are melted at the lowest 
possible temperature, and allowed to cool 



very gradually. As soon as a crust forms 
upon the top, which may be readily seen 
by the surface becoming furrowed, it must 
be pierced with a rod, and the still fluid 
portion decanted with suflScient dexterity 
to prevent it from cooling during the 
process, and at the same time from in- 
juring the crystals coating the interior of 
the vessel. The liquid matter should be 
placed so as to be free from all vibration. 
The greater the mass of the material, and 
the more slowly it is cooled, the more 
voluminous and better defined will be the 
crystallization. 

Crystallization hy Sublimation. — Vola- 
tile solids, as iodine, camphor, several me- 
tallic chlorides and mercurial compounds, 
arsenic, benzoic acid, iodide of lead, etc., 
when heated as directed in suhlimatioUf 
yield vapors which, in cooling, take the 
form of crystals. 

Crystallization from Solution. — When 
it is desired to obtain a substance in crys- 
tals it must first be liquefied, or made into 
a solution with an appropriate liquid. If, 
after making the solution, there be any 
insoluble residue, it must be separated by 
filtration; and subsequently, if the solu- 
tion is capable of decolorization by such 
means, it should be boiled with a small 
portion of clean bone or ivory black, and 
again filtered. As it is the almost univer- 
sal law that heat increases the solvent 
power of 'bodies, the solution should gen- 
erally be made and clarified at the boil- 
ing point, so that the excess of matter 
taken up at the high temperature may 
separate, on cooling, in the form of crys- 
tals. So long as a solution is dilute it 
yields no crystals ; these latter are only 
formed when the containing liquid is 
supersaturated ; or, in other words, holds 
more than it can retain ; and consequent- 
ly, in diminishing the quantity of the li- 
quid by evaporation, we increase the den- 
sity of that which remains, and hence, 
upon cooling, it deposits that excess of 
the dissolved substance which it only held 
by virtue of its high temperature. Some 
instances are so easily soluble, and to 
such an unlimited extent, that their so- 
lutions form crystals immediately upon 
cooling; others, again, are taken up with 
such difficulty, even at high heats, unless 
in large bulks of liquid, that although ex- 
posed to prolonged ebullition they require 
to be evaporated in order to separate what 
has been dissolved. As the mode of evap- 
orating has an important influence upon 
the form and size of crystals, we give 
some hints as to the proper manner of 
performing it. 

If large and well defined crystals are 



Ei39 3 



(Emulsions) 



(Emulsions) 



required, the solution should be subjected 
to spontaneous evaporation, for the more 
slow and uniform the concentration the 
more regular and gradual will be the su- 
perposition of material required to make 
distinct and large crystals. A slight ad- 
dition of solution of gelatine will, in 
some instances, it is said, give the crys- 
tals the form of plates, as in the case of 
boracic acid. The solution should be re- 
moved from the fire as soon as drops, 
withdravTn by a glass rod, and deposited 
upon a watch glass or clean spatula, give 
small crystals upon cooling. If, how- 
ever, a very dense crystallization is re- 
quired, the concentration may be contin- 
ued until a pellicle forms upon the top, 
but then the solidified masses are con- 
fused and less brilliant. These essays in- 
dicate that the liquid is evaporated to a 
point at which it cannot retain all of 
its soluble matter. The vessels are then 
placed aside to cool gradually and uni- 
formly, that the excess may crystallize 
out of the liquid. The temperature should 
be regular, for slight variations may alter 
the form of the crystals. 

Bodies equally soluble in cold and hot 
water, as well as those which are deli- 
quescent, require a prolonged evaporation, 
as they only crystallize from very dense 
solutions. 

When the liquid is to be converted 
"yvholly into solid, then the process is 
termed granulation, and is practiced by 
concentrating it to a syrupy consistency, 
removing the vessel from the fire and stir- 
ring its contents constantly until the mass 
has cooled into granules. This mode is 
adapted for purifying pearlash and con- 
verting it into sal tartar, and also for 
graining brown sugars. 

Emulsions and Emulsifying. 

To emulsify an oil consists in rendering 
it capable of mixing with water to form 
a uniform milky fluid, by the aid of an 
intervening medium, generally saccharine 
or mucilaginous. 

Milk being the most perfect emulsion 
obtainable, the mixture of fat which 
stimulates this compound most closely 
must likewise be regarded as superior in 
the degree that these qualities are intensi- 
fied. To be sure, an artificial emulsion 
always represents a greater percentage 
of fat than milk, and its preservation is, 
therefore, relatively easier than in that 
obtained from nature ; but this fact mere- 
ly modifies the result, and does not involve 
the principle. The greater proportion of 
water in milk also favors decomposition, 
but on the other hand, the minute, per- 



haps even molecular, division of the fat 
globules renders it possible to withstand 
decomposition longer than an equally di- 
lute artificial emulsion, wherein the oil 
globules are not so thoroughly dissemi- 
nated. 

We, of course, recognize the fact that 
milk contains different animal bodies not 
present in ordinary artificial emulsions, 
which are prone to decomposition, so that 
the similarity drawn between the two is 
based more upon physical characteristics 
than their presenting any features in com- 
mon chemically. 

But it is this attempt at compromising 
its principal physical feature — fluidity — 
with permanency, which makes the prep- 
aration of an emulsion so difficult. To so 
change a fat as to render it miscible with 
water is a matter of easy execution, but 
when we attempt to embody the desirable 
feature of fluidity then we are thwarted 
by physical laws, and resort to chemical 
means as a compromise. 

Condensed milk is a striking illustra- 
tion wherein by a change of its physical 
condition, complete preservation has been 
attained much more satisfactorily than 
milk in its natural form could be pre- 
served, even with chemical means. It is 
for this reason that consistency is the 
most desirable feature to insure the per- 
manence and preservation of any emul- 
sion, natural or artificial. 

It is well known that a perfect and per- 
manent emulsion can be made with cod- 
liver oil and malt extract, owing to the 
consistency of the preparation solely, as 
we have attempted to use the same agents 
represented in malt extract, namely, dex- 
trine and glucose, and discovered that 
as soon as the consistency was abandoned 
these agents did not possess any advan- 
tage over those usually employed for 
emulsifying fats. To the albumen in milk 
has been ascribed the high degree of and 
most permanent ©mulsification, and there- 
fore gelatine is employed in artificial 
emulsions, with not much better success, 
however, than other agents, when semi- 
fluid consistency is abandoned. 

We will now consider what should be 
used as emulsifying agents, and also such 
as, while largely used, are not desirable, 
for obvious reasons. 

Unfortunately, the well-wom maxim, 
so justly applied to most classes of phar- 
maceutical preparations, "The sacrifice of 
medicinal value for elegance," has not 
been lost sight of in the preparation of 
emulsions. Periodically, different sub- 
stances from all the different kingdoms of 
nature have been proposed, enjoyed a 



[140] 



(Emulsions) 



(Emulsions) 



short, fashionable stay, and then been rele- 
gated to their well merited oblivion. 

The vegetable gums, acacia and trag- 
acanth, have been the longest in use, and 
the first mentioned of these has probably 
answered the purpose of a reliable, con- 
venient, and at least innocuous emulsi- 
fying agent better than the majority of 
latter-day substitutes. 

The late Prof. Wm. Procter announced 
the proportion to be used of gum acacia 
to produce a perfect temporary emulsion. 
His directions were as follows : "Mix 




Emulsifier 



ftitimately, in a perfectly dry mortar, the 
oil with one-half its weight of powdered 
acacia ; to this add at once one-half as 
much water as the combined weight of 
oil and gum, and triturate briskly until 
the mixture has assumed the color and 
consistency of a thick cream, which pro- 
duces a crackling noise when the pestle 
is moved rapidly around the sides of the 
mortar." This is the emulsion proper, 
and to this can be added any amount more 
of water or other desirable vehicle or 
medicament to bring the finished prepa- 
ration up to the quantity prescribed. 

If perfectly made, this em^ulsion will 
stand any degree of dilution with watery 
mixtures ; in fact, its quality is proved 
when, by a large addition of water, the 
oil globules will not separate or aggre- 
gate at the top of the liquid. 

Practice has demonstrated that the 
proportion of gum can be varied accord- 
ing to the nature of the oil employed, 
but the constant relation between the wa- 
ter used for the emulsion proper, and 
the mixture of oil and gum, must be 
scrupulously adhered to as insuring in- 
fallible results. 



Fixed oils rich in gum, per se, as co- 
paiba, castor oil, etc., do not require as 
large an amount of gum as cod-liver oil, 
while in the case of ethereal oils, for in- 
stance, oil of turpentine, an equal amount 
of gum, or weight for weight, is neces- 
sary. To prepare an emulsion from tur- 
pentine not unfrequently presents diflSi- 
culties, and so much the more is this to 
be guarded against, as it is a powerful 
remedy, and if presented in a merely me- 
chanical mixture will prove irritating, and 
perhaps engender serious consequences. 

But then, if by careful observance of 
this method we can obtain a perfect emul- 
sion, what more is desired? Although 
this emulsion is perfect, it is not perma- 
nent, and to circumvent this negative fea- 
ture is the problem for solution. 

While we have not discovered any 
means or process whereby -this problem 
can be solved, yet we have found agents 
capable of preventing this separation in 
a great degree, being guided in their se- 
lection by a knowledge of the constitu- 
ents which are most favorable to this 
separation and those that are not. 

An emulsion should be palpable, and 
for this reason it is always sought to 
make it sweet by the introduction of cane 
sugar or glycerine. These two agents are 
the cause of the most dissatisfaction with 
emulsions. Sugar, owing to its affinity 
for water, and density, favors separation 
very rapidly, precipitating while the emul- 
sified oil forms a compact, creamy and 
gradually diminishing stratum at the top 
of the vessel. Glycerine, probably from 
the same causes, and its incompatibility 
with fixed oils, behaves in a similar man- 
ner, and for these reasons these otherwise 
desirable vehicles cannot be represented 
in an emulsion when permanence is to be 
obtained. 

As no other agents present themselves 
for fulfilling the sweet object in view, we 
have been in the habit of preparing emul- 
sions without attempting to make them 
sweet, and, we believe, without detracting 
from their palatability, while enhancing 
their appearance. 

Now, then, let us consider what agent 
will favor the homogeneity of the emul- 
sion ; that is, prevent separation or pre- 
cipitation, bearing in mind that the prep- 
aration must not be changed physically 
or chemically. 

Gelatine has been used with some sat- 
isfaction, as it retards the separation for 
a considerable length of time ; in fact, it 
answers the purpose so well that for the 
extemporaneous preparing of emulsions it 
leaves nothing to be desired. But in com- 



[141] 



( Ignition ) 



( Ignition ) 



men with other agents used for this pur- 
pose, it gradually loses its power of pre- 
serving the homogeneity of an emulsion, 
and eventually the separation and decom- 
position, so called, alluded to above, take 
place. 

The proportion of gelatine einployed is 
about 40 gr. to 1 pt. of the emulsion ; it 
should be dissolved in the water, and add- 
ed at any time of the operation. By in- 
creasing this amount so that a jelly is 
formed of the emulsion, a perfectly per- 
manent and stable preparation is obtained. 
But this result is obtained because the 
physical character of the emulsion has 
been changed — fluidity abandoned for con- 
sistency. Unhappily, we cannot take ad- 
vantage of this condition, and therefore 
"consistency is not a jewel" pharmaceu- 
tically. 

Chemical agents such as change the 
character of an emulsion by saponifying 
the oil, have been largely advocated, and 
to the employment of this class of sub- 
stances is principally due the elegance and 
permanence of ready-made emulsions. 
That this is attained at the sacrifice of 
medicinal value of the preparation we 
have no doubt, but medical authorities 
have also demonstrated it to be a ques- 
tionable procedure to chemically change 
the constitution of a fat intended for in- 
ternal administration by what should be 
a simple pharmaceutical process — emul- 
sification — and now condemn the use of 
alkalies with balsams and rosins. Co- 
paiba is no more exhibited with solution 
of potash, and alkalies are generally con- 
ceded as operating to break up the sen- 
sitive electronegative principles of ros- 
ins, upon which their medicinal value 
chiefly depends. Animal fat, and espe- 
cially cod-liver oil, when rendered alka- 
line, undoubtedly suffers decomposition in 
those very constituents to which its su- 
perior digestibility is due, and thus what 
has been gained on one liand is more than 
lost on the other. The saponification 
which has been produced by the use of 
the alkali renders the preparation very 
prone to rancidity if exposed to the air, 
and even when freshly made it possesses 
inferior palatability ; but then this has 
been of secondary importance to homo- 
geneity or elegant appearance. 



V 
IGNITION 

Substances frequently require to be ig- 
nited to redness, either as the sole proc- 
ess of their preparation, or as a prelimi- 
nary step to subsequent operations. 



Ignition of Filters. 

In analyses, the filters containing the 
insoluble or precipitated substances which 
are^ to be estimated are ignited or "burned 
off," to expel carbonaceous and volatile 
matters, before being weighed. The im- 




Heating Porcelain Crucible 

piemen ts for this purpose are porcelain 
or platinum crucibles, either having their 
appropriate application. 

As it is necessary that the filter should 
be wholly or partially dry, it must be 
carefully removed from the funnel, so as 
not to lose a particle of its contents, com- 
pressed between the folds of bibulous pa- 
per, and, further, dried in a capsule over 
a sand or water bath, or in a drying 
stove (desiccation), at a temperature of 
about 200° F., or less. The dried filter 
is then to be transferred to the crucible, 
which has been previously weighed. The 
transfer must be made without the loss 
of the least particle, and for this purpose 
the crucible may be placed upon a sheet 
of glazed white paper, so that any parti- 
cles that accidentally fall may be pre- 
served. The filter should be placed in the 
crucible with its apex upwards, after hav- 
ing been freed as much as possible from 
the adherent precipitate by gently rubbing 
the sides together between the thumb and 
forefinger. The force used for this pur- 
pose must not be suflScient to abrade the 
paper, otherwise the matter will reach the 
fingers, and a loss thus be occasioned by 
adherence. 

When substances are to be ignited for 
the determination of their hygroscopic, 
volatile, or organic matter, the heat of the 
lamp should be gradually applied without 
the blast, and, for the former purpose, 
only to the production of a dull red heat. 
In these instances, the crucible should be 
weighed fir§t, so that the loss sustaingf^ 



[142] 



( Ignition ) 



(Fusion) 



by a given weight of its contents during 
ignition, may be ascertained in one weigh- 
ing merely by subtracting the weight of 
the crucible and contents after ignition 
from the combined weight of the two be- 
fore the same process. The loss gives the 
amount of the volatile matter. 

In analyses of coals, the moisture can 
be determined "by heating the crucible in a 
ihot sand bath, or very gently over a low 
flame. After the loss thus occasioned is 
determined by weighing, the amount of 
carbon may be ascertained by subjecting 
the crucible and contents to a much higher 
heat. 

When the substances are to be exposed 
to heat, the crucible and contents must 




Gas Crucible Furnace with Air Blast. 

likewise be weighed separately before ig- 
nition. The loss of weight gives the 
amount of volatile matter driven off. The 
ignited matter can then be removed from 




Assayer's Plant of Gas Furnaces. 



the crucible by hot water alone or acidu- 
lated. 

Scoriae may be removed from platinum 
crucibles by covering them with a paste 
of borax and carbonate of soda, heating 
them to redness, and when cold, dissolving 
out the saline matter with boiling water. 
A repetition of the process is necessary 
to brighten the crucible perfectly if it had 
been very dirty. One of our engravings 
represets an assaying plant of gas fur- 
naces as arranged by Walter Lu Brour. 
The furnace to the right is for roasting, 
the middle is for crucible fusions, and to 
the left is one for scorification and cupel- 
lation. 




Gas Crucible Furnace Without Blast. 

Fusion. 

Fusion is a process of liquefying solid 
bodies by heat without a solvent, such as 
wax melting. Gas melting arrangements 
as shown are recommended. With this 
apparatus a sound 2-oz. ingot of gold or 
silver can be molded in 2 min. A crucible 
of molded carbon is supported by a sheet- 
iron slide or plate which is clamped to an 
ingot mold by a clamp which swivels in 
the U-shaped cast-iron stand. The metal 
to be melted is placed in the crucible, and 
the flame of the blowpipe directed on it 
until it is perfectly fused. The whole is 
then tilted over by means of the upright 
handle at the back of the mold. The 
waste heat serves to make the ingot mould 
hot. No flux should be used with the 
carbon crucibles. 

The plate mold will cast an ingot 1% 
xl%x3-16 in. thick; wire mold, 3-16 
X 3-16x2% in. long. 

For melting up to 2 oz. of gold or sil- 
ver rapidly, without the use of a furnace. 
In this arrangement the two parts of the 
[ 143 ] 



(Calcination) 



(Calcination) 



ingot mold slide on each other, to enable 
ingots of any width to be cast, and the 
blowpipe is part of the rocking stand. 




Ingot Casting Arrangement. 




Carbon Crucible. 



When the metal is melted in the shallow 
crucible of molded carbon, till the whole 
apparatus over so as to fill the ingot 
mold. 

Calcination. 

The separation (in a dry way) of vola- 
tile from fixed matter, by heat, is termed 
calcination. The process is applicable: 

To the expulsion of water from salts, 
minerals, coals and other substances. 

To the expulsion of carbonic acid from 
certain carbonates. 

To the expulsion of arsenic and sulphur 
from cobalt, nickel and other sulphur- 
etted compounds. 

To the expulsion of 'bituminous matter 
from coals, and certain minerals and ores. 

To the ignition of quartz and silicious 
minerals to promote their disintegration. 

For the purpose of expelling the com- 
bined water of argillaceous minerals, and 
of thus rendering them more obstinate to 
the solvent action of aoids and reagents. 

If the substance under process is or- 
ganic, its calcination in a close vessel by 



a medium heat usually effects only partial 
decomposition, the gaseous matter gener- 
ated escaping through interstices and the 
fixed components remaining with a por- 
tion of unaltered carbon. Performed in 
this manner, the process takes the name 
of coking, familiar instances of which are 
the formation of coke by distilling coal 
in closed retorts, the manufacture of char- 
coal from wood, and of bone black from 
bones. 

By increasing the temperature and ad- 
mitting the air, the whole of the alterable 
and volatile matter is expelled, the fixed ' 
matter remaining as ashes. The process 
is then styled incineration, and in this 
way the coke, charcoal and ivory black, 
obtained as above directed, may be en- 
tirely reduced to their incombustible por- 
tions or ashes. 

Calcination is effected in platinum 
spoons or crucibles, in delicate experi- 
ments, over a spirit lamp ; but in large 
operations a furnace is required, and the 
containing vessels are crucibles of either ] 
metal or earthenware, according to the ^ 
nature of the substance to be heated, ' 
though the latter are often unsuitable for 
temperatures above a red heat. 

When the operation is finished, the 
crucible should be taken from the fire and 
allowed to cool gradually. The cover is 
then to be lifted off and the contents 
taken out with a spatula, and the portions 
adhering to the sides removed with a 
feather. 

If the substance undergoing calcination 
is fusible, it is necessary when quantities 
are to be ascertained, to weigh both the 
crucible and contents before ignition, so 
that the amount of volatile matter driven 
off may be expressed by the weight lost 
in heating. Water alone or acidulated, 
with the aid of heat, generally removes 
the calcined matter from the crucible. 

A body decripitating by heat should be 
powdered before being subjected to the 
process of calcination, and the tempera- 
ture should be raised slowly and gradual- 
ly, otherwise when the crucible is not 
covered, a loss may result from the ejec- 
tion of particles. 

To avoid contact v^^ith the generated 
vapors or with the atmosphere, which to 
some substances act as reducing agents, 
the crucible should in such cases be 
covered, and if tightly luted perforated 
with one or more small holes for the es- 
cape of vapor. 

Roasting (as the term is generally 
used) is a kind of calcination to which 
many ores are submitted before their final 
reduction to the metallic state, for the 



[144] 



(Deflagration) 



(Reduction) 



purpose of expelling ingredients which 
would either delay that process or be in- 
jurious to the metal when extracted. In 
this way water, carbonic acid, sulphur, 
selenium, arsenic, and sometimes other 
substances, are driven off from the ores 
containing them. The term is also applied 
to other processes, among the most im- 
portant of which is that of the exposure 
to heat and air by which metals become 
altered in composition. Thus, copper be- 
comes oxidized, and antimony and arsenic 
acidified by union with oxygen. 

Roasting is always effected in broad, 
shallow open vessels, so that the air may 
have free access ; and in order to promote 
the absorption of oxygen or the escape 
of the volatile substances, the surface of 
the body to be heated should be increased 
by previous pulverization, and it should 
be constantly stirred during the operation 
so as to present as many points of con- 
tact as possible. The most suitable ves- 
sel is a baked earthenware saucer or cap- 
sule placed in a muffle or upon the bars 
of a calcining furnace. Sometimes a 
crucible is used, and then the position of 
the vessel in the furnace should be slight- 
ly inclined on one side. In either case 
the vessels should be heated to dull red- 
ness previous to receiving their charge. 

Deflagration. 

That species of roasting termed defla- 
gration is effected by rapidly heating the 
substance to be oxidized, together wdth 
some additional body as an oxidizing 
agent, as a nitrate or chlorate for in- 
stance. The powdered mixture is added 
portionwise to the crucible previously 
heated, and maintained at redness during 
the operation. The vivid and sudden com- 
bustion which ensues modifies the com- 
position of the original substance and in- 
creases its amount of oxygen at the ex- 
pense of the addendum. Thus, for in- 
stance, sulphuret of arsenic is deflagrated 
with niter to produce arseniate of po- 
tassa, titanium and certain other metals 
to be transformed into oxides. 

Deflagration is also used as a means of 
detecting the presence of nitric or chloric 
acids. For this purpose the suspected 
substance is to be heated with cyanide of 
potassium, in a small platinum spoon. 
If deflagration ensues it is a test of the 
presence of one of them, or a compound 
of one of them. 

The crucibles may be of clay or metal, 
according to the nature of the substances 
to be heated. The roasiting of substances 
for the expulsion of organic matter may 
be effected in platinum vessels, provided 



the heat is not caried suflficiently high to 
produce fusion of the substance being 
roasted. 

The heat must, at first, be very grad- 
ually applied, and at no time be made 
great enough to fuse or agglutinate the 
material, otherwise the process will have 
to be suspended in order to repulverize 
the matter. Proper care at the com- 
mencement will obviate the necessity of 
this additional trouble. When the heat 
has been cautiously raised to redness and 
all liability of fusion is over, the fire may 
be urged to the production of a yellowish 
red or even white heat, so that the ex- 
pulsion of volatile matter may be com- 
plete. 

Roasting operations which disengage 
deleterious or disagreeable fumes should 
be carried on in the open air or under a 
hood, and when the volatile matters are 
valuable they may be condensed as di' 
rected in Distillation and Sublimation, 

Decrepitation. 

This frequently occurs and occasions 
loss fey ejections of particles of the mix- 
ture, owing to the sudden vaporization 
of the water of crystallization, which in 
finding vent scatters the confining sub- 
stances with a crackling noise. To pre- 
vent this loss, the crucible should be 
loosely covererl until decrepitation ceases. 

Reduction. 

This operation is employed for the 
separation of metallic bases from any 
bodies with which they are combined ; 
but is generaly confined to the extraction 
from an oxide — that being the kind of 
combination most commonly met with. 
The combined action of beat and certain 
reagents is required to effect this result, 
the temperature varying with the nature 
of the substance to be reduced. 

The most usual reducing agents are 
charcoal and hydrogen gas. Tallow, oil 
and rosin are sometimes used, but being 
easily decomposed they are dissipated be- 
fore entire reduction has occurred. Sugar 
and starch are also occasionally employed^ 
We shall, however, confine ou? remarks 
to the two principal articles. 

Reduction by Charcoal. 

Charcoal is used for this purpose in 
two ways, either in powder and directly 
mixed with the substance, or as a lining 
coat to the crucible in whrch the reduction 
is accomplished. The first mode is ob- 
jectionable, because the excess of coal 
which is required to be used interferes 
with the agglomeration of the particles 



[145] 



( Sublimation ) 



(Specific Gravity) 



of reduced metal. Whenever it is adopted, 
the quantity of coal dust to be added, 
which must be sufficient to transform all 
the oxygen of the oxide into carbonic 
acid, can be determined by calculation. 
This amount is then mi3:ed thoroughly 
with the oxide previously powdered, and 
is transferred to a crucible, taking care 
to place the charge in the center and to 
cover the contents with a layer of the 
dust. The whole is then to be subjected 
to the heat of a furnace, assisted if 
necessary by a blast. The reduction in 
this way, the most convenient for large 
quantities, is rapid and complete, but the 
metallic residue is often mixed with coal 
dust. 

Incineration, 

This is a process of heating organic 
substances with air until all the carbon 
is consumed, the product sought being the 
ash. 

Carbonization. 

This is a process calling for the heating 
of organic substances without exposure to 
the air until all the volatile products are 
given ofE and the residue remains as a 
kind of charcoal. Bone black is a good 
example. 

Sublimation. 

When simple compound bodies which 
are either wholly or in part capable of 
assuming the aeriform state are subjected 
to heat, they or their most volatile con- 
stituents, upon reaching the required tem- 
perature, rise in the form of vapor. If 
these vapors, in their transit, are inter- 
cepted by a surface of a lower tempera- 
ture, they condense and take a solid or 
liquid form, according to their nature. If 
the product is a solid, it is termed suhli- 
mate, and the process by which it is ob- 
tained is sublimation. If it is liquid or 
gas, it takes the name of distillate, and 
the operation which yields it that of dis- 
tillation. 

Both of these processes are indispensa- 
bly useful in chemistry, for they afford 
the facility of taking advantage of the 
unequal volatility of bodies for their sep- 
aration. 

As instances of sublimation, we have 
calomel and corrosive sublimate made by 
heating equivalent proportions of sulphate 
of mercury and comon salt ; benzoic acid 
evolved from the gum ; pure indigo from 
the commercial article, and camphor from 
the crude material. Iodine is sublimed to 
free it from impurities ; biniodide of mer- 
cury to convert it into crystals; naph- 



thaline to free it from empyreumatic 
matter, and succinic acid to separate 
water. 

Specific Gravity. 

_ The specific weight of a substance is 
its weight in comparison with weights of 
similar bulks of other substances. This 
comparative heaviness of solids and 
liquids is conventionally expressed in re- 
lation to water; they are considered as 
being lighter or heavier than water. Thus, 
water being regarded as unity =1, the 
relative weight, or specific weight, of 
ether is represented by the figures .720 
(it is nearly three-fourths, .750, the 
weight of water), oil of vitriol by 1.843 
(it is nearly twice, 2,000, as heavy as 
water). The specific weight of substances 
is, moreover, by generally accepted agree- 
ment, the weight of similar volumes at 15° 
C. (59° F.), except in the case of alcohol 
and wine, which are at present taken 
at 15.6° C. (60° F.), to maintain con- 
sistency with the United States laws and 
regulations; for the weight of a definite 
volume of any substance will vary accord- 
ing to temperature, becoming heavier 
when cooled and lighter when heated, dif- 
ferent bodies (gases excepted) differing in 
their rate of contraction and expansion. 
While, then, specific weight — or, conven- 
tionally, specific gravity — is truly the 
comparative weight of equal bulks, the 
num'bers which in America commonly 
represent specific gravities are the com- 
parative weights of equal bulks at 15° 
(59° F.), water being taken as unity. 

The true weight of the body is its 
weight in air plus the weight of an equal 
bulk of air, and minus the weight of a 
bulk of air equal to the bulk of brass or 
other weights employed ; or, in other 
words, its weight in vacuo uninfluenced 
by the buoyancy of the air; but such a 
correction of the weight of a body is 
seldom necessary, or, indeed, desirable. 
Density is sometimes improperly regarded 
as synonymous with special gravity. It 
is true that the density of a body is in 
exact proportion to its specific gravity, 
but the former is more correctly the com- 
parative bulk of equal weights, while 
specific gravity is the comparative weight 
of equal bulks. 

The standard of comparison for gases 
Was formerly air, but is now usually hy- 
drogen. 

Specific Gravity of Solids Lighter than 
Water. — This is obtained in a manner 
similar to that for solids heavier than wa- 
ter ; but the light body is sunk by help of a 
piece of heavy metal, the bulk of the water 



[146] 



(Specific Gravity) 



( Specific Gravity ) 



which the latter displaces being deducted 
from the bulk displaced by both; the re- 
mainder is the weight of a bulk of water 
equal to the bulk of the light body. For 
instance, a piece of wood weighing 12 
grams (or grains) is tied to a piece of 
metal weighing 22 grams, the loss of 
weight of the metal in water having been 
previously found to 'be 3 grams. The two, 
weighing 34 grams, are n<>w immersed, 
and the loss in weight found to be 26 
grams. But of this loss 3 grams have 
been proved to be due to the buoyant ac- 
tion of the water on the lead ; the re- 
maining 23, therefore, represent the same 
effect on the wood ; 23 and 12, therefore, 
represent the weights of equal bulks of 
water and wood. As 23 are to 12, so is 
1 to .5217. Or, shortly, as before, divide 
the weight in air by the weight of an 
equal bulk of water ; .5217 is the specific 
gravity of the wood. Another specimen 
of wood may be found to be three-fourths 
(.750) the weight of water, and others 
heavier. Cork varies from .100 to .300. 

The specific gravity of a very minute 
quantity of a heavy or light substance 
may be ascertained by noting the specific 
gravitly of a fluid in which it, being in- 
soluble, neither sinks nor swims, or by 
immersing it in a weighed piece of par- 
affine whose specific gravity is known, 
noting the specific gravity of the whole, 
and deducting the influence of the par- 
aflSne. 

Specific Gravity of Solids in Powder or 
Small Fragments. — Weigh the particles ; 
place them in a counterpoised specific- 
gravity bottle of known capacity, and fill 
up wtih water, taking care that the sub- 
stance is thoroughly wetted ; again weigh. 
From the combined weights of water and 
substance subtract amount due to the sub- 
stance ; the residue is the weight of water. 
Subtract this weight of water from the 
quantity which the bottle normally con- 
tains ; the residue is the amount of water 
displaced by the substance. Having thus 
obtained the weights of equal bulks of 
water and substance, a rule-of-three sum 
shows the relation of the weight of the 
substance to 1 part of water — the specific 
gravity. 

Or suspend a cup, a short tube, or 
bucket from a shortened balance-pan; im- 
merse in water; counterpoise; place the 
weighed powder in the cup, and proceed 
as directed for taking the specific gravity 
of a solid in a mass. 

Specifio Gravity of Solids Soluble in 
Water, — Weigh a piece of sugar, or other 
substance soluble in water ; suspend it 
from a balance in the usual manner, and 



weigh it in turpentine, benzol or petro- 
leum, the specific gravity of which is 
known or has been previously determined ; 
the loss in weight is the weight of an 
equal bulk of the turpentine. Ascertain 
the weight of an equal bulk of water by 
calculation : 

As is the specific gravity of turpentine 
to the specific gravity of water, so is the 
observed bulk of turpentine to an equal 
bulk of water. 

The exact weights of equal bulks of 
sugar and water being obtained, the 
weight of a bulk of sugar corresponding 
to 1.000 of water is shown by a rule-of- 
three sum ; in other words, divide the 
weight of sugar by that of the equal bulk 
of water ; the quotient is the specific grav- 
ity of sugar. The stated specific gravity 
of the sugar ranges from 1.590 to 1.607. 



^=1 







Hydrometers and Jar 

^ Hydrometers. — ^The specific gravity of 
liquids may be ascertained without scales 
and weights, by means of a hydrometer, 
an instrument usually of glass, having a 
graduated stem, and bulb or bulbs at the 
lower part. The specific gravity of a 
liquid is indicated by the depth to w^hich 
the hydrometer sinks in the liquid, the 
zero of the scale marking the depth to 
which it sinks in pure water. Hydrome- 
ters^ require a considerable quantity of 
liquid ^ to fairly float them, and specific 
gravities observed with them are less deli- 
cate and trustworthy than those obtained 
by the balance ; nevertheless, they are ex- 
ceedingly useful for many practical pur- 
poses where the employment of a delicate 
balance would be inadmissible. 

Hydrometers are of two kinds : First, 
those which are always immersed in tbiJ 



Ll47] 



(Hydrometers) 



(Thermometer Scales) 



same depth in still water and the liquid 
to be tried, small weights being used for 
the purpose, as in Fahrenheit's and Nich- 
olson's hydrometers ; and second, those 
which are suffered to rise or sink freely in 
the liquid, as in Syke's and Baum6's. In 
both cases a correction must be made for 
any variation in temperature. 

In conducting technical experiments, 
the hydrometer will often be found of 
great use, even to those who are not chem- 
ists. The Baum6 instrument seems to be 
falling into disuse, a hydrometer having 
a graduated scale in which the gradua- 
tions represent the specific gravity, taking 
its place. A hydrometer jar 'and two 
specific gravity scale hydrometers should 
be used, one for liquids heavier than wa- 
ter, and one for liquids lighter than wa- 
ter. For special purposes, or if the equip- 
ment of the laboratory is large, a con- 
sider'able number of hydrometers may be 
provided. When constructed for special 
purposes they often have special names. 
In the catalogue of a prominent manu- 
facturer of chemical apparatus and ma- 
terials we find the following special hy- 
drometers for special purposes. The prices 
run from 75 cents to $2.00, although 
some special types cost more, 'and some 
are only sold in sets. These special hy- 
drometers are for testing the following 
substances : Alcohol, alkali, ammonia, 
bark ( tannometer ) , battery fluid, beer, 
beer and wort, 'benzine, blood, chlorine, 
cider, coal oil, ether, gasoline, glycerine, 
miilk (lactometer), naphtha, oil, salt so- 
lution (salimeter), silver solution, sug*ar, 
vinegar, wine and must. If the liquid is 
too warm, the hydrometer jar containing 
it should be cooled to the proper temper- 
ature ; if the temperature has fallen too 
low, the hydrometer jar can be slightly 
warmed with the hand. Many of the 
hydrometers found in the older books have 
either dropped out of use, or are rarely 
used in this country by chemists. The 
Pralles hydrometer is largely used by dis- 
tillers in this country, and by the Govern- 
ment for making alcoholic determinations. 
Twaddell's hydrometer is very often 
employed in tanneries and other technical 
works, especially 'in England. If work in 
specific gravity is to be perfonned, a spe- 



cific gravity balance is recommended. The 
tables of specific gravity will be found 
in the chapter on Weights and Meas- 
ures. Tables of specific gravity, and the 
method of using the same, are presented 
herewith. 

Thermometer Scales. 

Much annoyance is caused by the great 
difference of thermometer scales in use 
in the different civilized countries. The 
scale of Reaumur prevails in Germany. 
As is well known, he divides the space 
between the freezing and boiling points 
into 80°. France uses that of Celsius, 
who graduated his scale on 'the decimal 
system. The most peculiar scale of all, 
however, is that of Fahrenheit, a re- 
nowned German physicist, who in 1714 
or 1715, composed his scale, having ascer- 
tained that water can be cooled under the 
freezing point without coagealing. He 
therefore did not take the congealing point 
of water, but composed a mixture of equal 
parts of snow and sal ammoniac, about 
— 14° R. The conversion of any one of 
these scales to another is very simple, 
and easily made. To change a tempera- 
ture, as given 'by Fahrenheit's scale, into 
the same as given by the centigrade scale, 
subtract 32° from Fahrenheit's degrees, 
and multiply the remainder by 5-9. The 
product will be the temperature in centi- 
grade degrees. 

To change from Fahrenheit's to Reau- 
mur's scale, subtract 32° from Fahren- 
heit's degrees, and multiply the remain- 
der hy 4-9. The product will be the tem- 
perature in Reaumur's degrees. 

To change the temperature, as given by 
the centigrade scale, into the same as 
given by Fahrenheit, multiply the centi- 
grade degrees by 9-5 and add 32° to the 
product. The sum will be the tempera- 
ture by Fahrenheit's scale. 

To change from Reaumur's to Fahren- 
heit's scale, multiply the degrees on Reau- 
mur's scale by 9-4 and add 32° to the 
product. The sum will be 'the tempera- 
ture by Fahrenheit's scale. 

For those who wish to save themselves 
the trouble we have calculated the fol- 
lowing comparative table. 



[148] 



(Thermometer Scales) 



(Thermometer Scales) 



COMPARATIVE SCALES OF THERMOMETER. 



c. 


R. 


F. 


C. 


R. 


F. 


C. 


R. 


F. 


-30 


-24.0 


-22.0 


14 


11.2 


57.2 


58 


46.4 


136.4 


-29 


-23.2 


-20.2 


15 


12.0 


59.0 


59 


47.2 


138.2 


-28 


-22.4 


-18.4 


16 


12.8 


60.8 


60 


48.0 


140.0 


-27 


-21.6 


-16.6 


17 


13.6 


62.6 


61 


48.8 


141.8 


-26 


-20.8 


-14.8 


18 


14.4 


64.4 


62 


49.6 


143.6 


-25 


-20.0 


-13.0 


19 


15.2 


66.2 


63 


50.4 


145.4 


-24 


-19.2 


-11.2 


20 


16.0 


68.0 


64 


51.2 


147.2 


-23 


-18.4 


-9.4 


21 


16.8 


69.8 


65 


52.0 


149.0 


-22 


-17.6 


-7.6 


22 


17.6 


71.6 


66 


52.8 


150.8 


-21 


-16.8 


-5.8 


23 


18.4 


73.4 


67 


53.6 


152.6 


-20 


-16.0 


-4.0 


24 


19.2 


75.2 


68 


54.4 


154.4 


-19 


-15.2 


-2.2 


25 


20.0 


77.0 


69 


55.2 


156.2 


-18 


-14.4 


-0.4 


26 


20.8 


78.8 


70 


56.0 


158.0 


-17 


-13.6 


1.4 


27 


21.6 


80.6 


71 


56.8 


159.8 


-16 


-12.8 


3.2 


28 


22.4 


82.4 


72 


57.6 


161.6 


-15 


-12.0 


5.0 


29 


23.2 


84.2 


73 


58.4 


163.4 


-14 


-11.2 


6.8 


30 


24.0 


86.0 


74 


59.2 


165.2 


-13 


-10.4 


8.6 


31 


24.8 


87.8 


75 


60.0 


167.0 


-12 


-9.6 


10.4 


32 


25.6 


89.6 


76 


60.8 


168.8 


-11 


-8.8 


12.2 


33 


26.4 


91.4 


77 


61.6 


170.6 


-10 


-8.0 


14.0 


34 


27.2 


93.2 


78 


62.4 


172.4 


-9 


-7.2 


15.8 


35 


28.0 


95.0 


79 


63.2 


174.2 


-8 


-6.4 


17.6 


36 


28.8 


96.8 


80 


64.0 


176.0 


-7 


-5.6 


19.4 


37 


29.6 


98.6 


81 


64.8 


177.8 


-6 


-4.8 


21.2 


38 


30.4 


100.4 


82 


65.6 


179.6 


-5 


-4.0 


23.0 


39 


31.2 


102.2 


83 


66.4 


181.4 


-4 


-3.2 


24.8 


40 


32.0 


104,0 


84 


67.2 


183.2 


-3 


-2.4 


26.6 


41 


32.8 


105.8 


85 


68.0 


185.0 


-2 


-1.6 


28.4 


42 


33.6 


107.6 


86 


68.8 


186.8 


— 1 


-0.8 


30.2 


43 


34.4 


109.4 


87 


69.6 


188.6 





0.0 


32.0 


44 


35.2 


111.2 


88 


70.4 


190.4 


1 


0.8 


33.8 


45 


36.0 


113.0 


89 


71.2 


192.2 


2 


1.6 


35.6 


46 


36.8 


114.8 


90 


72.0 


194.0 


3 


2.4 


37.4 


47 


37.6 


116.6 


„ 91 


72.8 


195.8 


4 


3.2 


39.2 


48 


38.4 


118.4 


92 


73.6 


197.6 


s 


4.0 


41.0 


49 


39.2 


120.2 


93 


74.4 


199.4 


6 


4.8 


42.8 


50 


40.0 


122.0 


94 


75.2 


201.2 


7 


5.6 


44.6 


51 


40.8 


123.8 


95 


76.0 


203.0 


8 


6.4 


46.4 


52 


41.6 


125.6 


96 


76.8 


204.8 


9 


7.2 


48.2 


S3 


42.4 


127.4 


97 


77.6 


206.6 


10 


8.0 


50.0 


54 


43.2 


129.2 


98 


78.4 


208.4 


11 


8.8 


51.8 


55 


44.0 


131.5 


99 


79.2 


210.2 


12 


9.6 


53.6 


56 


44.8 


132.8 


100 


80.0 


212.0 


13 


10.4 


55.4 


57 


45.6 


134.6 









To change the temperature as given 
by the centigrade scale into the same 
as given by Fahrenheit, multiply the 
centigrade degrees by 9-5 and add 32 
deg. to the product. The sum will be 
the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. 

To change from Reaumur's to Fahr- 



enheit's scale, multiply the degrees on 
Reaumur's scale by 9-4 and add 32 
deg. to the product. The sum will be 
the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. 
For those who wish to save them- 
selves the trouble we have calculated 
the preceding comparative table. 



[149] 



PART III 



Technical Formulas 

for the 

Shop and Home Labratory 



CHAPTER I. 



ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS 

This subject is indexed, and the reader should consult the Index in all cases. 
SouDERS form the subject of a special chapter. 

BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



GENERAL INFORMATION ON ALLOYS 
ALUMINUM ALLOYS 
BISMUTH AND CADMIUM ALLOYS 

FUSIBLE ALLOYS 
COPPER ALLOYS 

GERMAN SILVER 

BELL METAL 

BRONZE 

GUN METAL 

SPECULUM METALS 

BEARING METALS 

BRASS 
GOLD ALLOYS 

IMITATION GOLD 
IRON ALLOYS 



LEAD ALLOYS 

MANGANESE ALLOYS 

PLATINUM ALLOYS 

SILVER ALLOYS 

SILVER SUBSTITUTES 

TIN ALLOYS 

BEARING METALS 
BABBITT METAL 
WHITE METAL 
BRITANNIA METAL 
TIN SUBSTITUTES 
TYPE METAL 

TUNGSTEN ALLOYS 

ZINC ALLOYS 

AMALGAMS 



GENERAL INFORMATION ON ALLOYS 



Nature of Alleys. — 'When two or more 
metals are caused permanently to unite, 
the resulting mixture is termed an alloy. 
When mercury is an essential constitu- 
ent, the mixture is termed an amalgam. 
The general method of effecting combina- 
tion is by the agency of heat, but with 
certain soft metals true alloys may be 
formed by subjecting the constituents to 
considerable pressure, even at the ordi- 
nary temperature. Alloys such as those 
briefly referred to were doubtless first dis- 
covered by the metallurgical treatment of 
mixed ores, from the simultaneous reduc- 
tion of which alloys would be formed ; 
or, in some cases, as in ores of gold and 
silver, naturally formed alloys would be 
obtained by a simple melting process. 
The direct preparation of alloys by the 
simple melting together of the constituent 
metals has been enormously developed in 
modern times, and the attention which 
mixed metals are now receiving by chem- 



ists is far greater than in any period of 
history. Comparatively few of the metals 
possess properties such as render them 
suitable to be employed alone by the man- 
ufacturer ; but most of them have im- 
portant applications in the form of alloys. 
Even among the metals which can be used 
independently, it is often found expedi- 
ent to add portions of other metals to im- 
prove or otherwise modify their physical 
properties. Thus gold is hardened, and 
made to resist wear and tear, as well as 
to lower its cost, by the addition of cop- 
per ; silver is likewise hardened by alloy- 
ing it with copper ; and the bronze coin- 
age is formed of an alloy of copper, zinc 
and tin for similar reasons. 

Alloys generally possess characteristics 
unshared by their component metals. 
Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which 
has a different density, hardness and color 
from either of its constituents. 

The specific gravity of alloys is never 



[153] 



(Nature of Alloys) 



(Preparation of Alloys) 



the arithmetical mean of that of their 
constituents, as commonly taught; and in 
many cases considerable condensation or 
expansion occurs. When there is a strong 
affinity between two metals, the density 
of their alloy is generally greater than 
the calculated mean, and vice versa, as 
may be seen in the following list : 

Alloys the Density of which is Greater 
than the Mean of their Constituents. — 
Gold and zinc; gold and tin; gold and 
bismuth ; gold and antimony ; gold and 
cobalt; silver and zinc; silver and tin; 
silver and bismuth; silver and antimony; 
copper and zinc ; copper and tin ; copper 
and palladium ; copper and bismuth ; lead 
and antimony ; platinum and molybde- 
num ; palladium and bismuth. 

Alloys the Density of which is Less 
than the Mean of their Constituents. — 
Gold and silver; gold and iron; gold and 
lead ; gold and copper ; gold and iridium ; 
gold and nickel; silver and copper; iron 
and bismuth; iron and antimony; iron 
and lead. 

Preparation and Properties of Alloys. — 
The mode of procedure in the produc- 
tion of any alloy will be largely influ- 
enced by the nature of the metals to be 
operated upon. Some metals are volatile, 
and readily pass off as vapor when heated 
a few degrees above their melting points. 
Others have little tendency to vaporize, 
and may be raised to high temperatures 
without sensible volatilization. When a 
volatile metal has to be alloyed with a 
non-volatile metal, and the fusing points 
of both are approximately the same, com- 
bination can be most readily effected by 
mixing the constituents and melting them 
together in the same crucible or furnace. 
This is, however, seldom the case, and, as 
a general rule, the components of an al- 
loy, one or all of which are volatile, have 
widely divergent melting points, and then 
it is requisite for the most refractory con- 
stituent to be melted first, and for the 
others to be added in the solid state. 
Again, an alloy may contain one or more 
fixed metals and a volatile one, in which 
case the more volatile metal is added to 
the crucible after the fixed metal or met- 
als have been fused, and raised to a tem- 
perature necessary to melt the volatile 
constituent immediately it is introduced, 
so that combination may be effected be- 
fore any serious loss, due to vaporiza- 
tion, has occurred. Union between the 
components of an alloy is more perfectly 
secured by agitation of the contents with 
a stirring-rod, the most effective in min^- 
cases being a wooden or carbon rod, whi-^h 



promotes admixture without the introdu^ 
tion of any substance likely to contam- 
inate the mixture and modify its prop- 
erties. 

A thing to be guarded against in the 
melting of all base metals, or alloys con- 
taining base metals as essential constitu- 
ents, is oxidation. Various plans are 
adopted to avoid loss of metal and injury 
to the alloy from this cause. The most 
common one is to cover the metals with 
carbon, which not only excludes the air 
admitted to the furnace, but tends to 
absorb any oxygen liberated from the met- 
als during fusion. Thus, as long as the 
mixture is covered with carbon, the car- 
bonic oxide formed effectually shields it 
from oxidation. In the method already 
referred to of stirring metals with a car- 
bon rod to promote mixture, the same gas, 
carbonic oxide, is formed, and thus the 
rod not only promotes union by mechani- 
cal agitation, but generates a gas which 
protects the metals in a great measure 
from oxidation. In some cases this is not 
admissible, as commercial metals are im- 
pure, and it may be advisable to admit 
sufficient oxygen, either from the air or 
by means of a special oxidizing agent, 
added along with the flux, to convert the 
impurities into oxides, which do not al- 
loy with the metals, but either enter into 
combination with the flux to form a slag, 
or rise to the surface as dross or scum. 
In most cases it is advisable that the cov- * 
ering body should not exert any influence ■ 
on the metals beneath. 

Some manufacturers are in the habit 
of throwing fat and rosin on the heated 
metals before fusion. These are decom- 
posed by heat, liberating gases, and when 
well stirred with the molten metal pro- 
mote combination by the mechanical agi- 
tation imparted by their escape. They 
also act chemically in removing oxygen, 
by the union of that element with the 
carbon and hydrogen set free. When tho 
evolution of gas has ceased a quantity 
of carbon remains in a finely divided 
state, which covers the metals and pro- 
tects them from oxidation. 

^ Borax is sometimes used to exclude the 
air, but it is much more costly than car- 
bon, and when it is not required as a 
flux its employment is accompanied with 
some evils. Now, borax is composed of 
the base soda in combination with boric 
acid, which is only partly saturated with 
the soda, and the excess of acid unites 
with any metallic oxide present, forming 
double borates of a glassy nature. Com- 
mercial borax is often very impure, and 



r 154 ] 



(Annealing Alloys) 



(Purposes of Alloys) 



is adulterated with common salt and 
alum ; these impurities are injurious to 
many metals. Sodium chloride, or com- 
mon salt, is also employed for preserv- 
ing molten metals from oxidation, and also 
to moderate the action of bodies which 
cause violent ebullition. Glass is fre- 
quently used for a similar purpose, and, 
next to carbon, is the least injurious to 
metals. It is a mixture of silicates, which 
easily fuses at high temperatures, form- 
ing compounds with lime or other bases, 
so that it acts almost as beneficially as 
borax when such a flux is required. Win- 
dow glass or green bottle glass is the most 
useful, but flint glass, which contains 
much oxide of lead, would be detrimental 
in many cases. 

It is a well-known fact that the char- 
acter of many alloys is altered by repeat- 
ed remelting, and that the scrap obtained 
in working cannot be used again without 
the addition of a certain quantity of new 
metal. A given mixture may be employed 
for the formation of an alloy, which is 
highly malleable, ductile, and tenacious, 
and the scrap from the same alloy, when 
remelted, may be brittle and unworkable ; 
but when a suitable quantity of new 
metal is added, the combination may form 
an alloy even superior to the original one 
with regard to its good working proper- 
ties. It is to the advantage of the man- 
ufacturer, as regards economy, to use as 
much scrap as possible in alloying, and 
the quantity thus employed varies from 
one-third to two-thirds of the weight of 
the charge. Of course, in using old metal, 
many more impurities are liable to be in- 
troduced than with new metal, and al- 
though the same impurities may exist in 
the new metal, the quantities may be in- 
sufficient to produce a deteriorating ef- 
fect, but when augmented from old metal 
may then rise to such proportions as to 
entirely alter the physical properties of 
the alloy. The presence of notable quan- 
tities of foreign matter is generally ex- 
hibited by increased hardness and a mod- 
ification of the structure, as seen on a 
freshly fractured surface. 

In regard to annealing, five laws are 
formulated as the result of experiments : 
( 1 ) Annealing is never instantaneous ; 
its effects, rapid at first, become more 
and more slow, and the softening tends 
toward a limit for each temperature; (2) 
tljis limit is lower, and is attained more 
rapidly as the annealing temperature is 
raised; (3) above a certain temperature 
annealing is complete, and a further in- 
crease of temperature does not diminish 



the strength, but a crystallization due to 
annealing occurs, and increases with the 
time of annealing, ultimately reducing the 
tensile strength and elongation to those 
of the cast metal; (4) the presence of 
impurities retards the action of anneal- 
ing, and demands a higher temperature 
for its completion ; ( 5 ) the crystalliza- 
tion from annealing is due to the presence 
of impurities which have lower fusing 
points than the metal itself, or which 
form compounds which have those prop- 
erties. 

The purposes for which alloys are re- 
quired are endless. Some are required 
to possess great malleability, for others 
hardness is the chief requisite: others, 
again, must possess a high degree of elas- 
ticity, while some are useful on account 
of their low melting point, etc. These 
different demands can only be satisfied 
by uniting suitable metals in different 
proportions. 

The number of simple metals is very 
limited, but they may be united in various 
proportions, forming an endless variety of 
modifications ; and since every alloy may 
be looked upon as a new metal, from the 
fact of its properties differing from those 
of its constituents, we have at command 
the necessary material for producing met- 
als suitable for every requirement for 
which metallic matter is desirable. The 
action of metals upon each other is widely 
divergent ; sometimes one metal may be 
added to another in quantity without seri- 
ously altering its working properties ; in 
other cases a minute quantity of the sec- 
ond metal will altogether change the char- 
acter of the first metal ; so that in alloy- 
ing, it by no means follows, because one 
metal may be freely added, that another, 
even of a similar nature, may be as liber- 
ally introduced. The man who aspires to 
the formation of new alloys, or who wishes 
to produce metals suitable for different 
requirements, as circumstances arise, must 
be well acquainted with the nature and 
properties of the simple metals in order 
to successfully accomplish his object ; and 
although a knowledge of the components 
is not sufficient of itself, it is of immense 
advantage in assisting the operator who 
combines practical experience in mixing 
metals with this theoretical knowledge. 

In chemical combinations it is a well- 
known fact that elements always com- 
bine^ with other elements in definite pro- 
portions by weight, termed atomic weight, 
producing compounds of fixed and decided 
properties, so that the same compounds 



[ 155 .1 



(Cost of Production) 



(Melting Point of Elements) 



can be always relied upon to contain the 
same elements, united in the same pro- 
portions. The same law applies to the 
union of two metals, when such metals 
are chemically combined, and the same al- 
loy will always have properties identically 
the same, however it may be tested. ^ Sev- 
eral experimenters have directed their at- 
tention to the mixing of metals according 
to their atomic weights, so as to obtain 
alloys of determined characteristic prop- 
erties, but up to the present time the 
number of such combination.^ of a useful 
character is very limited. They are by 
no means the ones most suited to the 
wants and requirements of industry. 
There is always one indispensable item, 
from the manufacturer's point of view, 
which the chemist is not concerned with — 
that is, the cost of production — and how- 
ever nicely atomic proportions would suit 
the requirements of a given alloy, such 
an alloy would, in most cases, be useless 
unless the cost was consistent with the 
market value. The question, then, of cost 
must have consideration, and the propor- 
tions must, if possible, be made to fit in 
with commercial necessities. With regard 
to copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, 
the combinations which best exhibit the 
characters of chemical compounds are 
hard and brittle, and as copper alloys are 
much more widely used than any other, 
there is little inducement to encourage 
metallurgists to endeavor to alloy copper 
and zaic, or copper and .in, in rit.ornic 
proportions, since malleability and tenac- 
ity are the properties most desired in 
these alloys. Again, -olor is the chief 
desideratum in many alloys, and this can- 
not be always obtained by mixing in 
atomic proportions, especially as it often 
happens that a very small addition of one 
of the constituents will alter the shade 
of color so as to produce what is required. 



When it is desirable to add a non- 
metallic element to a metal or alloy, for 
the purpose of bringing about a certain 
result, very much greater care is gener- 
ally required in appoiliuning the quantity 
to be added than with a metal, as non- 
metals combine much more actively with 
metals than the metals do with each other, 
and a very small quantity of a non-metal 
will suflSce to alter the properties of a 
metal alloy. It is very surprising to 
note how, in some instances, a mere trace 
of another element will alter the proper- 
ties of a metal. For example, 1-2000 of 
carbon added to iron will convert it into 
mild steel; 1-1000 of phosphorous makes 



copper hot-short; 1-2000 part of tellu- 
rium in bismuth makes it minutely crys- 
talline ; 1-1000 part of bismuth in copper 
renders it exceedingly bad in quality for 
certain purposes. 

Fusibility. — Some metals are almost in- 
fusible, and when heated to the highest 
heat in a crucible they refuse to melt and 
become fluid ; but any metal can be melted 
by combination with more fusible metals. 
Thus platinum, which is infusible with 
any ordinary heat, can be fused readily 
when combined with zinc, tin or arsenic. 
This metal, by combination with arsenic, 
is rendered so fluid that it may be cast 
into any desired shape, and the arsenic 
may then be evaporated by a mild heat, 
leaving the platinum. Nickel, which 
barely fuses alone, will enter into com- 
bination with copper, forming German sil- 
ver, an alloy that is more fusible than 
nickel and less fusible than copper. The 
less fusible metals, when fused in contact 
with the more fusible metals, seem to dis- 
solve in the fusible metals ; rather than 
melt, the surface of the metal is gradu- 
ally washed down, until the entire mass 
is dissolved or liquefied, and reduced to 
the state of alloy. 

Following are the melting points of the 
elements employed in alloys : 

Degrees 
Cent. 

Aluminum 654.5 

Antimony 629.5 

Arsenic 450 

Bismuth 268.3 

Cadmium 320 

Copper 1080.5 

Gold 1061.7 

Iron 1550-1600 

Lead 330- 335 

Magnesium 632.7 

Manganese 1800-1900 

Mercury 39.4 

Nickel 1400-1450 

Phosphorus 44 

Platinum 1775 

Silicon 1100-1300 

Silver 960.5 

Sulphur 114.5 

Tellurium 282 

Tin 231.68 

Zinc 419 



[156] 



(Table of Alloys Commonly Used) 



The following is a table of the proportions of the various metals in the alloys most 
commonly employed in the arts and manufactures. The term "parts" means parts by 
weight. The abbreviations are: Cu, copper; Zn, zinc; Sn, tin; Pb, lead; Sb, antimony; 
P, phosphorus; As, arsenic; Ni, nickel. 



Description. 

1. Metal for frictional parts of locomotives 

(extremely hard) 

2. Bearings of carriages 

3. Bearings of driving wheels, also for steam 

engine whistles, giving a clear sound.. 

4. Steam engine whistles giving a deep 

sound 

5. Cross heads of connecting rods 

6. Cylinders of pumps, valve boxes and taps 

7. Eccentric collars 



Cu. Zn. Sn. Pb. Sb. 



As. 



Ni. 



B. Bearings of axles and trunnions 
trie collars 



eccen- 



9. Pistons of locomotives. 



Axle boxes 

Mathematical instruments, arms of bal- 
ances 

Machinery, bearings, etc 

Steam engine whistles 

Metal to withstand friction (Stephenson) 

Rivets 

Metal for coffins 

Metal to withstand friction 

Cylinders of pumps 

Metal for bearings of locomotives 

White brittle metal (for buttons, etc.)--- 

Imitation silver 

Pinchbeck 

Tombac 

Red tombac 

Specially adapted for bearings 

For bearings and valves 

Electrotype "backing metal" 

Stereotype metal for paper process 

" " " plaster process 

Bullet metal 

Malleable brass plate 

Pin wire 

Jemmapes brass 

Similor for gilding 

Maillechort for rolling 

" first quality 

White similor 

For stopcock seats 

" " plugs 

For keys of flutes, etc 

Hard tin 

White tombac 

Vogel's alloy for polishing steel 

Rompel's anti-friction metal 

Arguzoid, a tough alloy superior to brass 



S4 



24.6 



.25 



8?> 

33.7 
4.6 

20 
3 



1 

10 
23 



18 

17 
16 

10 
14 
14 
13 
o 
28 

2.0 

10 

8 
14 

"s 

3 
40 
72 
21 
90 
20 



15 5 

7 
4 



0.5 
0.2 
2.7 



80 



19 



9 
91 

88 

82 

92 
0.5 
0.5 
1.5 



20 



1 

18 
3.5 



26 



8 
64 



1.5 

"5 
12 

18 



14 

20 
40 
0.5 



75 



13.5 



ALUMINUM 

General Remarks. — Aluminum unites 
readily with all the common metals ex- 
cept lead. The useful alloys of aluminum 
so far found may be divided into two 
classes : thp one, of aluminum with not 
more than 85% of oth-r metals: and the 
other, of metnls containing not over 15% 
aluminum. In the one case the metals 



impart hardness and other useful quali- 
ties to the aluminum ; and in the other 
the aluminum adds useful qualities to the 
metals with which it is alloyed. 

Alkali Metals 

Because of the eas^- w'Ah which these 
alloys are decomposed, especially when 
subjected to water or moist air, none of 



[157] 



(Copper) 



(Nickel) 



them can be considered in any way ad- 
vantageous; in fact, alloys of metallic so- 
dium and potassium with aluminum are 
the hete noir of the metallurgy of 
aluminum, just as sulphur and phos- 
phorus are feared in the metallurgy of 
steel. 

Copper 

Copper Aluminum. — 1. — ^Aluminum is a 
metal whose properties are very mate- 
rially influenced by a proportionately 
small addition of copper. Alloys of 9i)% 
of aluminum and 1% of copper are hard, 
brittle and bluish in color ; 95% of alumi- 
num and 5% of copper gives an alloy 
which can be hammered, but with 10% 
of copper the metal can no longer be 
worked. With 80% and upward of cop- 
per are obtained alloys of a beaatiful 
yellow color. The 10% alloys are of a 
pure golden yellow color; with 5% of 
aluminum they are reddish yellow, like 
gold heavily alloyed with copper; and a 
2% mixture is of an almost pure copper 
red. As the proportion of copper in- 
creases the brittleness is diminished, and 
alloys containing 10% and less of alumi- 
num can be used for industrial purposes, 
the best consisting of 90% of copper and 
10% of aluminum. The useful copper 
alloys with aluminum can be divided into 
two classes — the one containing less than 
11% of aluminum and the other contain- 
ing less than 15% of copper. The first 
class is best known as "aluminum Dronze." 

Aluminum Copper. — 2. — The second 
class of copper-aluminum alloys embraces 
the aluminum casting alloys most appli- 
cable for general purposes. When alumi- 
num is alloyed with from 7 to 10% of 
copper a tough alloy is secured, the ten- 
sile strength of which will vary from 
15,000 to 20,000 lb. per square inch. This 
alloy has proved itself especially adapt- 
able to automobile work and to those 
castings submitted to severe shocks and 
stresses. Because of the nature of its 
constituents, an alloy of the above, or of 
similar composition, is not so liable to 
be "burnt" in the foundry as an alloy 
made up of more volatile constituents. 
The remainder of the range of copper- 
aluminum alloys, from 20% of copper up 
to over 85%, give crystalline and brittle 
grayish-white alloys of no use in the arts. 
After 80% of copper is reached the dis- 
tinctly red color of the copper begins to 
show itself. 

Gold 

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen has dis- 
covered a beautiful alloy, composed of 



78 parts of gold and 22 parts of alumi- 
num, which has a rich purple color. 

Iron 

Aluminum combines with iron in all 
proportions. Few of the alloys, however, 
have yet proved of value, except those of 
small percentages of aluminum with steel, 
east iron and wrought iron. 

Oast Iron. — In cast iron, from 1 to 2 
lb. of aluminum per ton is put into the 
metal as it is being poured from the 
cupola or melting furnace. To soft gray 
No. 1 foundry iron it is doubtful if the 
metal does much good, except, perhaps, 
in the way of keeping the metal melted 
for a longer time ; but where difficult 
castings are to be made, where much loss 
is occasioned by defective castings, or 
where the iron will not flow wel!. or give 
sound and strong castings, the aluminum 
certainly in many cases allows better 
work to be done, and stronger and sound- 
er castings to be made, having a closer 
^rain, and hence janch easier tooled. The 
tendency of the aluminum is to change 
combined carbon to graphitic, and it les- 
sens the tendency of the metal to chill. 
Aluminum in proportions of 2% and 
over materially decreases the shrinkage of 
cast iron. 

Ferro-Aluminum. — ^This is the trade 
name given to alloys of from 5 to 10, or 
even 20% of aluminum, added to iron. 
These alloys vary in quality, occasion<Hl 
by the grade of steel or iron used in 
making them. 

Steel. — The amount of aluminum used 
ts small, and, to give the best results, 
varies with the grade of steel, amount 
of occluded gases, temperature of molten 
metal, etc. Aluminum is usually added 
in proportions of from % to % lb, to 
1 ton of steel. The aluminum is added 
either to the metal in the ladle, or, in 
the case of steel castings, with more econ- 
omy of aluminum, to the metal as it is 
being poured into the ingot molds. 

Manganese 

Manganese is one of the best harden- 
ers of aluminum. 

Nickel 

1.— This alloy, with from 2 to 5% of 
the combined alloying metals, is very sat- 
isfactory for rolling or hammering. By 
larger proportions, of 7 to 9%, a good 
casting alloy is produced, 

2. — ^Two new alloys for jewelry consist 
of: (1) Nickel, 20 parts; with alumi- 
num, 8 parts. (2) Nickel, 40 parts; sil- 



[ 158 ] 



(Zinc) 



(Fusible Alloys) 



ver, 10 parts ; aluminum, 30 parts ; tin, 
20 parts. 

Silver 

1. — The addition of a few per cent, of 
silver to aluminum, to harden, whiten 
and strengthen the metal, gives a mate- 
rial especially adaptable for many fine 
instruments and tools, and for electrical 
apparatus, where the work upon the tool, 
and its convenience, are of more conse- 
quence than the increased price due to the 
addition of the silver. Silver lowers the 
melting point of aluminum and gives a 
metal susceptible of taking a good polish 
and making fine castings. 

2. — Aluminum, 3 parts; silver, 1 part. 
This alloy is very easy to work. 

Tin 

1. — Tin has been alloyed with alumi- 
num in proportions of from 1 to 15% of 
tin, giving added strength and rigidity to 
heavy castings, as well as sharpness of 
outline, with a decrease in the shrinkage 
of the metal. The alloys of aluminum 
and tin are rather brittle, however, and 
although small proportions of tin, in cer- 
tain casting alloys, have been advantage- 
ously used to decrease the shrinkage, on 
account of the comparative cost and brit- 
tleness of the tin alloys, they are not gen- 
erally used. 

2. — Aluminum, 100 parts; tin, 10 prrts. 

3.— ^Aluminum, 90% ; tin, 10%. 

Zinc 

Like copper alloys, the zinc alloys can 
be divided into two classes: (1) Those 
containing a relatively small amount of 
aluminum. (2) Those containing less 
than 35% of zinc. Zinc produces the 
strongest alloys with aluminum, the 
strength being still further increased by 
the addition of small amounts of other 
suitable metals. The tensile strength of 
the strongest of the zinc alloys frequently 
1 runs as high as 30,000 to 35,000 lb. per 
I square inch. These high zinc alloys are 
i brittle, however, and are more liable to 
; "draw" in heavy parts or lugs than are 
; the copper alloys. This can. in most cases. 
I b'e overcome by suitable gating, placing of 
i chills and risers. Zinc alloys also pos- 
! sess the danger of having the zinc burned 
I out in melting, thus producing a weaker 
j casting. With careful work, however, 
I this class of alloys gives as good satisfac- 
! tion as copper alloys in respect to hard- 
ness, ease of machining, and use in small 
parts not subject to severe shock. For 
I forging, few metals excel an aluminum- 
li/ zinc alloy containing from 10 to 15% 



of zinc. This alloy is tough, flows well 
under the forging dies, and produces a 
finished product that is solid, easily ma- 
chined, and remarkably strong per unit 
of area. 

Zinc is used as a cheap and very effi- 
cient hardener in aluminum castings, for 
such purposes as sewing-machine frames, 
etc. Proportions up to 30% of zinc with 
aluminum are successfully used. An al- 
loy of about 15% of zinc, 2% of tin, 
2% of copper, i/^% each of manganese 
and iron, and 80% aluminum, has special 
, advantages. The following alloys are 
' strong, and meet all usual requirements : 
Al. Zn. Cu. Sn. 

For wire or sheet 28 5 . . 

For tubes 13 6 8 2 

With good close grain . 20 10 . . 
With good open grain . 18 6 . . 

BISMUTH AND CADMIUM ALLOYS 
Bismuth Bronze 

1. — A metallic alloy, which the in- 
ventor calls bismuth bronze, was intro- 
duced by Webster, as specially suitable 
for use in sea water, for telegraph and 
music wires, and for domestic articles. 
The composition varies slightly with the 
purpose for which the bronze is to be 
used, but in all cases the proportion of 
bismuth is very small. For a hard alloy 
he takes 1 part of bismuth and 16 parts 
of tin, and, having melted them, mixes 
them thoroughly as a separate or pre- 
liminary alloy. For a hard bismuth 
bronze he then takes 69 parts of copper, 
21 parts of spelter, 9 parts of nickel and 
1 part of the bismuth-tin alloy. The met- 
als are melted in a furnace or crucible, 
thoroughly mixed, and run into molds 
for future use. This bronze is hard, 
tough and sonorous ; it may be used in 
the manufacture of screw-propeller blades, 
shafts, tubes, and other appliances em- 
ployed partially or constantly in sea 
water, being especially suited to withstand 
i the destructive action of salt water. 

Fusible Alloys 

Under the namp, fusible .metal, or fus- 
ible alloy, is und-^rstood a mixture of 
I metals which becomes liquid at tempera- 
I tures at or below the boiling point of 
i water. 

I 1. — D'Arcet's. — ^Bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 
; 6 parts ; tin, 3 parts. This melts below 
212° F. 

j 2. — Walker's. — Bismuth, 8 parts; tin, 

I 4 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; antimony, 1 part. 

, The metals should be repeatedly melted 

and poured into drops until they can be 



[159] 



(Fusible Alloys) 



(Fusible Alloys) 



well mixed, previous to fusing them to- 
gether. . 

3. — Onion's. — ^Lead, 3 parts; tin, Z 
parts ; bismuth, 5 parts. Melts at 197° F. 

^.—\i to the latter, after removing it 
from the fire, 1 part of warm quicksilver 
be added, it will remain liquid at 170° F., 
and become a firm solid only at 140° F. 

Table of Fusible Alloys. 



a 


T3 




% - 


a 


% 






8 


5 


3 


202 


8 


16 


24 


316 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


266 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


16 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


290 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


290 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


822 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



Fusible Metals for Use in Boilers, etc. 
— The following alloys, with their corre- 
sponding melting points, together with the 
temperature of steam at various press- 
ures, may be used : 











all 


d 










lis 


a 


Tin 6 Lead 1 




381»F. 


^a^' 


H 


" 5 


" 1 




378° F. 


'"'JD 




" 4 


" 1 




365° F. 


120 lb. 


350°F. 


" 3 


" 1 




356° F. 


105 1b. 


341°F. 


" 2 


" 1 




340° F. 


901b. 


331° F. 


'• 1% 


' 1 




334° F. 


75 lb. 


320°F. 


.. 4 


" 4Bismut^ 




320° F. 


601b. 


307° F. 


•♦ 3 


" 3 




310° F. 


45 lb. 


282°F. 


*' 2 


" 2 




9n2°F 


30 lb. 


274°F. 


" 1 


" 1 




254°F. 


15 1b. 


250 =F. 


" 2 


' 2 








292°F. 


" 3 


" 3 








310°F. 


.. 4 


" 4 








320° F. 


" 6 


" 1 








381°F. 


" 5 


" 1 








378°F. 


" 4 


" 1 








365°F. 


" 3 


" 1 








.356°F. 


" 2 


" 1 








340° F. 


" IVa 


" 1 








334° F. 


" 1 


" 1 








370° F. 


" 1 


" 2 








441°F. 


" 1 


" 3 








482°F. 


" 1 


" 5 








511° F. 


" 1 


" 10 








541°F. 


" 1 


" 25 








558°F. 



So much depends, however, on the way 
in which an alloy is made, the purity of 
its original metals, and the changing con- 
ditions to which a fusible plug is sub- 
jected, that it is very doubtful whether 
they should ever be depended upon in crit- 
ical places. 

Fusible Alloys and their Melting 
Points. — The following alloys will melt 
in boiling water or at a lower tempera- 
ture : 

Bis- Cad- 
Tin. Lead, niuth. mium. ^. F. 
Newton's 3 2 5 100° 212° 
Rose's. . . 3 8 8 95° 203° 
Erman's. 112 93° 199° 
Wood's.. 2 4 7 1 70° 158° 
Mellott's. 5 3 8 93° 200° 
Harper's. 4 4 7 1 80° 180° 

Erman's alloy can be made of equal 
parts of plumber's half-and-half solder 
(equal parts tin and lead) and bismuth. 
Harper's alloy can be made of 8 parts of 
plumber's half-and-half solder, 7 parts of 
bismuth and 1 part of cadmium, and can 
be poured into a modeling composition 
impression. It is hard enough to with- 
stand the hammering required, and makes 
a smooth, sharp die. 

Fusible Alloys Containing Cadmium. — 
Cadmium, like bismuth, has the valuable 
property of lowering the melting point of 
many alloys, some of which are readily 
fusible in boiling water. Cadmium does 
not render the alloys so crystalline and 
brittle as bismuth, many of its combina- 
tions being capable of being hammered 
and rolled. The chief use of cadmium is 
in fusible alloys, which are used as sol- 
ders, for castings requiring a low tem- 
perature, and in dentistry for alloys for 
stopping hollow teeth. Alloys of cad- 
mium generally contain tin, lead, bismuth, 
and cadmium. Mercury is sometimes add- 
<^d to still further lower the melting point. 
The following table shows the composi- 
tion and melting points of the more im- 
portant cadmium alloys : 

Cad- Bis- Melt'g 

Allovs. mium. Lend. Tin. muth. point. 

r.ipowitz's. .3 8 4 1.5 1.58°F. 

Fusible 2 11 3 16 170°F. 

" 10 8 3 8 167°F. 

" 1 . . 2 3 ?03°F. 

" 1 .. 3 5 203°F. 

" 1 . . 1 2 203°F. 

" 1 2 1 4 1 50°F. 

Wood's 2 4 2 5 160°F. 

Fusible 2 2 4 . . 187°F. 

Type metal 22^^ 50 36 



noo] 



(Copper Nickel) 



(Copper Tin) 



Copper-Cobalt 

Sun-bronze.— The alloy called sun- 
bronze contains 10% of aluminum, 30 or 
40% of copper, and 40% of cobalt. It 
melts at a point approaching the melting 
point of copper, is tenacious, ductile, and 
very hard. 

Copper-Lead ^^ ^, , , o 

Cock Metal.— Copper, 20 lb.; lead, 8 
lb. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; antimony, 3 oz. 

Mira Metal, Acid-proof. — This alloy is 
characterized by its power of resisting 
the action of acids, and is, therefore, es- 
pecially adapted to making cocks, pipes, 
etc., which are to come in contact with 
acid fluids. It is composed of copper, 
zinc, lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt and 
antimony, in the following proportions: 
Copper, 74.755; zinc. 0.G15; lead, 16.350; 
tin, 0.910 ; iron, 0.430 ; nickel and cobalt, 
each 0.240; antimony, 6.785. 

Pot Metal. — This is an alloy of copper 
and lead, in the proportions of 8 parts of 
copper to 3 parts of lead. The lead is 
an impurity in the zinc used for making 
the brass. Pot metal is very brittle when 
warmed; it is chiefly used for making 
large vessels. 

Lead. Copper. Description. 

2 oz. 1 lb. Red ductile alloy. 
4 oz. 1 lb. Red ductile alloy. 

6 oz. 1 lb. Dry pot metal or cock alloy. 

7 oz. 1 lb. Same, but shorter. 

8 oz. 1 lb. Wet pot metal. 

Copper-Nickel 

Argentan. White. — Zinc, 70 parts ; cop- 
per. 15 parts ; nickel, 6 parts. 

Birmingham Platinum. — -Birmingham 
platinum, also called platinum-lead, is 
composed of copper and zinc, in propor- 
tions here given : 

L II. III. 

Copper 46.5 43 20 

Zinc 53.5 57 80 

It is of a pure, nearly silver-white color, 
which remains unchanged by the air for 
some time. Unfortunately, it is so brit- 
tle that it can hardly be shaped in any 
way except by casting. Buttons are made 
of it by casting in metal molds which 
give sharp impressions, and the design is 
Afterward brought out more clearly by 

i careful pressing. 

i German Silver. — Albata. argentan, elec- 
trum, nickel silver, tutenag, Virginian 
plate, white copper. A well-known alloy, 
the finer varieties of which nearly equal 
silver in whiteness and susceptibility of 
receiving a high polish, while they sur- 
pass it in hardness and durability. The 



following formulae are from the highest 
authorities : 

1. — 'Copper, 50 parts ; nickel, 20 parts ; 
zinc, 30 parts. Very malleable, and takes 
a high polish. 

2. — Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 26 parts; 
zinc, 24 parts. Closely resembles silver; 
an excellent sample. 

3 — Copper and zinc, of each 41 parts; 
nickel, 18 parts. Rather brittle. 

4. — (M. Gersdorff.) Copper, 50 parts; 
nickel and zinc, of each 25 parts. Very 
white and malleable, and takes a high pol- 
ish. Recommended as a general substi- 
tute for silver. 

5. — ^(Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; 
nickel and zinc, of each 2() parts. For 
castings, as bells, candlesticks, etc. 

Nickel Bronze. — This is prepared by 
fusing together very highly purified nickel 
(99.5_%) with copper, tin and zinc. A 
bronze is produced containing 20% of 
nickel, light-colored, and very hard. 

Non-Magnetic Alloy for Watch Springs. 
— Composed of tin, copper, iron, lead, 
zinc, nickel and manganese. The propor- 
tions vary, but 60% of copper, 20% of 
nickel, and 18% of zinc, with the other 
ingredients, 1% or less. 

Copper-Tin 

Bell Metal. — 1. — The various alloys 
used in the manufacture of bells consist 
essentially of copper and tin, but in some 
cases other metals are added in small 
quantities, either for cheapness or to pro- 
duce a desired quality of sound. The ad- 
ditional metals chiefly used are zinc, lead, 
iron, and sometimes bismuth, silver, anti- 
mony and manganese. The following are 
some of the properties employed : Musi- 
cal bells, 84% copper, 16% tin. Sleigh 
bells, 84.5% copper, 15.4% tin, 0.1% an- 
timony. Gongs, 82% copper, 18% tin. 
House bells, 80% copper, 20% tin. House 
bells, 78% copper, 22% tin. Large bells, 
76% copper, 24% tin. Swiss clock bells, 
74.5% copper, 25% tin, 0.5% lead. Old 
bell at Rouen, 71% copper, 26% tin, 1.8% 
zinc, 1.2% lead. Clock bells, 72% copper, 
26.56% tin, 1.44% silver. Alarm bell at 
Rouen, 75.1% copper, 22.3% tin, 1% zinc, 
1.6% silver. Tam-tam, 79% copper, 20.3% 
tin, 0.52% lead, 0.18% silver. Japanese 
kara kane, 64% copper, 24% tin, 9% zinc, 
3% iron. Japanese kara kane, 70% cop- 
per, 19% tin, 3% zinc, 8% lead. Japa- 
nese kara kane, 61% copper, 18% tin, 
6% zinc, 12% lead. 3% iron. White 
table bells, 17% copper, 80% tin, 3% 
f-ismuth. White table bells, 87.5% tin. 



[161] 



(Phosphor Bronze) 



(Phosphor Bronze j 



12.5% antimony. Small bells, 40% cop- 
per, 60% tin. 

Bronzes. — Proportions and results. In 
the following table the first column of 
figures denotes copper, the second tin. 



lb. oz. 



0.5 
1.0 
1.3 

1.5 

2.0 

2.3 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 
4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

7.0 

8.0 



1 32.0 



, Color. 
Reddish yellow. 
Reddisli yellow. 
Reddisti yellow. 

Reddish yellow. 
Yellow red. 

Yellow red. 

Yellow red. 

Bluish red. 

Bluish red. 
Ash gray. 

Ash gray. 

Dark gray. 

Whitish. 
Whiter. 
Whiter still. 



Description. 
Ancient nails. 
Soft gun bronze. 
For mathematical 

instruments. 
For toothed wheels. 
Ordnance. 

Hard weapon and 
tool bronze. 

Hard machinery 
bearing bronze. 

Soft, for musical 
bells. 

Soft, for gongs. 

Soft, for house 
bells. 

Soft, for larger 
bells. 

Soft, for the larg- 
est bells. 

Ancient mirrors. 

Speculum bronze. 

Pewterers' temper. 



Gun Metal.— 1 

Cop- 
No. per. Tin. Zinc. 



I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 



92 
90 

84 
83 
80 
80 

75 



6 
2 
11 
12 
5 
15 
20 



Color. 
Pale red. 
Reddish yellow. 
Yellow. 
Yellow. 

Pale yellowish pink. 
Yellow. 
Greenish yellow. 



No. I is tough, malleable and tenacious. 
No. II is hard, somewhat unyielding, and 
easily broken. Nos. Ill and IV work 
well under the file and chisel. No. V is 
hard, but somewhat malleable. No. VI 
is hard and resisting, tough, and works 
fairly well with the file and chisel. No. 
VII is hard, and easily broken, but may 
be filed. The alloys are hard and brittle 
when the copper is less than 66% of the 
mixture ; and when the copper is reduced 
to 50% the alloys are extremely hord and 
brittle. The addition of a little lead im- 
proves the above alloys for turning and 
filing. 

Phosphor Bronze. — 'The variety of 
bronze known by this name is not to be 
considered as an alloy containing a cer- 
tain amount of copper, but rather as a 
bronze subjected to a peculiar treatment 
with the use of compounds of phosphorus. 
Many good phosphor bronzps contain but 
a very small quantitv of Dhosphorus, 
which exerts no essential influence upon 
the character of the alloy. In these cases 



the phosphorus acted during the prepaia- 
tion of the alloy. Bronze not infrequently 
contains a considerable quantity o£ cu- 
prous oxide in solution, which is formed 
by direct oxidation of the copper during 
fusion, and this admixture is highly detri- 
mental to the strength of the alloy. If 
now the melted bronze be treated with 
a substance capable of exerting a power- 
ful reducing action, as, for instance, phos- 
phorus, a complete reduction of the v!u- 
prous oxide will take place, and the bronze 
will acquire a surprisingly high degree of 
strength and power of resistance. If pre- 
cisely the quantity of phosphorus neces- 
sary for the complete reduction of the 
oxide has been used, no phosphorus will 
be found in the alloy, which nevertheless 
must be classed as phosphor bronze. It 
follows from what has been said that 
phosphor bronze is not a special kind of 
alloy, but that any bronze can be made 
into phosphor bronze ; it is, in fact, sim- 
ply a deoxidized bronze. Besides its ac- 
tion in reducing the oxides dissolved in 
the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another 
very material influence upon the proper- 
ties of the bronze. The ordinary bronzes 
consist of mixtures in which the copper 
is really the only crystallized constituent, 
since the tin crystallizes with great diffi- 
culty. As a consequence of this dissimi- 
larity in the nature of the two metals, 
the alloy is not as solid as it would be if 
both were crystallized. The phosphorus 
causes the tin to crystallize, and the re- 
sult is a more homogeneous mixture of 
the two metals. If enough phosphorus is 
added so that its presence can be detected 
in the finished bronze, the latter may be 
considered an alloy of crystallized phos- 
phor tin with copper. If the content of 
phosphorus is still more increased, a part 
of the copper combines with the phos- 
phorus, and the bronze then contains, be- 
sides copper and tin, compounds of crys- 
tallized copper phosphide with phosphide 
of tin. The strength and tenacity of the 
bronze are not lessened by a larger 
amount of phosphorus, nnd its hardness 
is considerably increased. Many phos- 
phor bronzes are equal in this respect to 
the best steel, and some even surpass it 
in general properties. The phosphorus is 
added to the bronze in the form of cop- 
per phosphide or phosphide of tin. the 
two being sometimes used together. They 
must be specially prepared for this pur- 
pose, and the best methods will be here 
given. 

Copper phosphide is prepared by heat- 
ing a mixture of 4 parts of superphos- 
phate of lime, 2 parts of granulated cop- 



[162] 



(Phosphor Bronze) 



(Bearing Metals) 



per and 1 part of finely pulverized coal in 
a crucible, at a temperature not too high. 
The melted copper phosphide, containing 
14% of phosphorus, separates on the bot- 
tom of the crucible. 

Tin phosphide is prepared as follows: 
Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solu- 
tion of tin chloride. The tin will be sep- 
arated in the form of a spongelike mass. 
Collect it, and put it into a crucible upon 
the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus 
have been placed. Press the tin tightly 
into the crucible, and expose to a gentle 
boat. Continue the heating until flames 
of burning phosphorus are no longer ob- 
served on the crucible. The pure tin 
phosphide, in the form of a coarsely crys- 
talline mass, tin-white in color, will be 
found on the bottom of the crucible. 

To prepare the phosphor bronze the al- 
loy to be treated is melted in the usual 
way, and small pieces of the copper phos- 
phide and tin phosphide are added. Phos- 
phor bronze, properly prepared, has nearly 
the same melting point as that of ordi- 
nary bronze. In cooling, however, it has 
the peculiarity of passing directly from 
the liquid into the solid state, without 
first becoming thickly fluid. In a melted 
state it retains a perfectly bright surface, 
while ordinary bronze in this condition 
is always covered with a thin film of 
oxide. If phosphor bronze is kept tor a 
long time at the melting point there is not 
any loss of tin, but the amount of phos- 
phorus is slightly diminished. The most 
valuable properties of phosphor bronze are 
its extraordinary tenacity and strength. 
It can be rolled, hammered and str'^tched 
cold, and its strength is nearly double 
that of the best ordinary bronze. It is 
principally used in cases where great 
strength and power of resistance to out- 
ward influences are required, as, for in- 
stance, in objects which are to be exposed 
to the action of sea water. Phosphor 
bronze containing about 4% of tin is ex- 
cellently well adapted for sheet bronze. 
With not more than 5% of tin it can be 
used, forged, for firearms ; 7 to 10% of 
tin gives the greatest hardness, and such 
bronze is especially suited to the manufac- 
ture of axle bearings, cylinders for steam 
fire engines, cogwheels, and, in general, 
for parts of machines where great strength 
and hardness are required. Phosphor 
bronze, if exposed to the air, soon be- 
comes covered with a beautiful, closely 
adhering patina, and is, therefore, well 
adapted to purposes of art. The amount 
of phosphorus added varies from 0.25 to 
2.5%, according to the purpose of the 



bronze. The composition of a number of 
kinds of phosphor bronze is given below : 

(1) Copper, 90.34%; tin, 8.90%; phos- 
phorus, 0.76%. (2) (Copper, 90.86% ; tin, 
8.56%; phosphorus, 0.196%. (3) Cop- 
per, 94.71% ; tin, 4.39% ; phosphorus, 
0.053%. 

(I) Copper, 85.55%; tin, 9.85%; zinc, 
3.77% ; lead, 0.62% ; iron, traces ; phos- 
phorus, 0.05%. (II) Tin, 4 to 15%; 
lead, 4 to 15% ; phosphorus, 0.5 to 3%. 

(III) Tin, 4 to 15%; zinc, 8 to 20%; 
lead, 4 to 15% ; phosphorus, 0.25 to 2%. 

(IV) Copper, 77.85%; tin, 11%; zinc, 
7.65%. (V) Copper, 72.50%; tin, 8%; 
zinc, 17%. (VI) Copper, 73.50%; tin, 
6%; zinc, 19%. (VII) Copper, 74.50%; 
tin, 11%; zinc, 11%. (VIII) Copper, 
83.50%; tin, 8%: zinc. 3%. 

(I) for axle bearings, (II) and (III) 
for harder and softer axle bearings, (IV) 
to (VIII) for railroad purposes, (IV) 
especially for valves of locomotives, (V) 
and (VI) for axle bearings for wagons, 
(VII) for connecting rods, (VIII) for 
piston rods in hydraulic presses. 

Among other properties, phosphor 
bronze emits sparks under friction much 
less readily than gun metal or copper, 
and oxidizes in sea water at about one- 
third the rate of copper. 

Speculum Metal. — 1. — Chinese Mirrors. 
Copper, 62 parts; tin, 32 parts; lead, 6 
parts. 

2. — 'Cooper's Mirror Metal. — Copper, 
57.85% ; platinum, 9.49% ; zinc, 3.51% ; 
tin, 27A9%; arsenic, 1.66%. The in- 
ventor claims for this alloy that it is in- 
different to the weather, and takes a 
benutiful polish. 

3.— Reflector Metal, Duppler's.— Sil- 
ver, 80 parts; zinc, 20 parts. 

Bearing Metals 

Alloys, Bearing. — 1. 
^ ,. Copper. Tin. Zinc. 

Ordinary bearings 84.5 13.3 2.2 

Ordinary bearings 83.6 12.6 3.8 

Heavy bearings 84 12 4 

Heavy bearings 77 9 14 

Main bearings 75 4 21 

Locomotive axles 86 .. 14 

Locomotive axles 82 10 8 

Moderately hard axles. 70 22 8 

Hard axles 82 16 2 

Very hard axles 89 . . 11 

Copper Alloy Bearing Metals. — 2.— The 
bearings of heavy axles, especially such 
as revolve rapidly, as, for example, the 
bearings of railroad wheels, are made, as 
a rule, from alloys which contain much 
copper (from 80 to 90%), and which 
may, therefore, be classed among bronze 



[163] 



{Bearing Metals) 



(Brass) 



Those containing the most copper have 
the valuable property of being malleable 
in heat, a property lacking in those which 
are poor in copper. A table is annexed 
giving the composition of some of the 
more important varieties of the metals 
of tills class, and the purposes for which 
they are especially used. It will be 
found, however, that nearly every large 
machine foundry uses a different alloy 
for the same purpose. This can only be 
explained by the difference in the quality 
of the metal worked. It is evident from 
what has previously been said with le- 
gard to the influence of small quantities 
of foieign metals upon the character of 
nn alloy, that a foundry which can ob- 
tain, for instance, only copper with a con- 
tent ot iron, will use a different alloy 
from one which works pure copper. This 
applies equally to all impurities present 
in metals ; and it would mark a great ad- 
vance in the technics of alloys if we were 
able to procure the metals for alloys, in 
a chemically pure state, at a low price. 
The result would be that the number of 
pMojs for each certain purpose would be 
lessened, and the same composition would 
be used in all foundries. 

Metals for Bearings 



Copper. 

Locomotive axles. . . . 86.0 

Locomotive axles.... 82.0 

Car axles 82.0 

Car axles 84.0 

Car axles 75.0 

Various axles 73.7 

Various axles, me- 
dium hard 69.55 

Various axles, hard. . 82.0 
Various axles, very 

hard 88.8 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


14.0 




8.0 


io.o 


18.0 




16.0 




2.0 


20.0 


2.1 


14.2 


5.88 21.77 


2.0 


IG.O 



11.2 



Machine Metals for Various Purposes 

Cogwheels 91.3 8.7 . . 

Punches 83.3 16.7 .. 

Steam whistles.. 80.0 2.0 17.0 .. 

Steam whistles.. 81.0 2.0 16.0 .. 

Cocks 88.0 2.0 10.0 .. 

Wheel boxes, for 

wagons 87.7 2.6 9.7 

Stuffing boxes.. 86.2 3.6 10.2 .. 

Mec'l instrum'ts 81.2 5.1 12.8 . . 

Files 64.4 10.0 17.6 8.6 

Filps 61.5 7.7 30.8 .. 

'Vcights 90.0 2.0 8.0 . . 

Cfi stings, to be 

gilded 79.1 7.8 13.1 .. 

Castings, to be 

gilded 77.2 7.0 15.8 .. 



Machine Metals for Various Purposes 
Cop- 
per. Zinc. Tin. Lead. 

Piston rings.... 84.0 8.3 2.9 4.3 

Malleable shovels 50.0 16.4 33.6 . . 

Malleable shovels 3.0 2.0 1.0 . . 

Buttons, white.. 57.9 36.8 5.3 .. 

Sheet for pressed 

articles 63.88 30.55 5.55 . . 

Small castings.. 94.12 .. 5.88 .. 

Small castings.. 90.0 10.0 .. 

Brass 

The term brass signifies all alloys of 
which copper and zinc are the essential 
and chief constituents ; but it is gener- 
ally limited in the industrial arts to those 
alloys which are decidedly yellow, or have 
the yellowish tint characteristic of ordi- 
nary brass. Alloys of zinc and copper 
are known in commerce by a variety of 
names, and, indeed, great confusion has 
been introduced by the multiplication of 
empirical names to represent one and the 
same substance. This is doubtless owing 
to the ignorance that formerly prevailed, 
when every mixture was jealously guarded 
as a great secret, and fanciful names 
given to hide the real composition. More- 
over, some alloys have been handed down 
to us from very early times, and their 
names corrupted so as to have different 
appellations in different localities. Cop- 
per and zinc may be united in all pro- 
portions, forming .homogeneous alloys ; 
and the combination is usually attended 
with evolution of heat. Certain varie- 
ties of brass are exceedingly malleable 
and ductile, and these properties, com- 
bined with the variety of shades of color 
obtained by suitable mixing, and the mod- 
erate cost, render copper-zinc alloys most 
valuable for ornamental purposes. Brass 
possesses all the necessary advantages as 
a constructive material for works of art, 
and with the aid of transparent varnishes, 
termed lacquers, which have been brought 
to great perfection, it resists the action 
of the atmosphere remarkably well. The 
malleability of brass varies with the com- 
position, with the temperature, and with 
the presence of foreign metals, which are 
sometimes in minute quantities. Some 
varieties are only malleable when rolled 
hot, others can be rolled at any tempera- 
ture. Alloys containing up to 35% zinc 
can be drawn into wire, but those contain- 
ing 15 to 30% of zinc are the most duc- 
tile. The alloy known as Dutch metal, 
which is an alloy of copper and zinc, con- 
taining more copper than ordinary brass, 
is an example of the great malleability of 
certain kinds of brass. The thickness of 



[164] 



(Brass) 



(Tobin Bronze) 



the leaves of Dutch metal is said not to 
exceed 1-52900 of an inch. Brass is 
harder than copper, and therefore better 
adapted to resist wear and tear. It acts 
well under the influence of a percussive 
force, as in the process of stamping, pro- 
vided it is suitably annealed at proper 
intervals, in order to counteract the ef- 
fects of local hardening, due to the com- 
pression of the particles into what may- 
be termed unnatural positions. During 
the ordinary process of annealing the 
metal becomes coated with a scale of ox- 
ide, by union with the oxygen of the air, 
which oxide requires to be removed at 
each stage. This is done by dipping the 
metal in aquafortis, or dilute sulphuric 
acid, then scouring with sand if neces- 
sary, and finally well rinsing in water. 
A piece of brass submitted to permanent 
deformation by mechanical treatment, 
such as rolling, is more or less hardened, 
and its limit of elasticity is raised. Be- 
tween soft and hard brass there are many 
shades of difference. With the same 
rolled brass the author has obtained ten- 
sile strengths varying from 15 to 25 tons 
per square inch before and after anneal- 
ing. The temperature employed for an- 
nealing is of greatest importance. 



Cop- 
per. 



Tin. Zinc. Lead. 



White metal bush 

for propeller ... 5 26 

Cogwheels 91 

Steam whistles... 80 17 

Stuffing boxes 86 11 

Mech'l instruments 82 13 

Piston rings 84 2.9 

Stevenson's socket 

alloy 19 31 



69 
9 



13 4.8 



19 31 



Sterro metal for 

pumps* 55 

Valve ballsf 87 



Cop- 
per. Tin. 



6 
12 



Zinc. Lead. 
22.5 . . 



*Also contains 16.5% iron. 
tAlso contains 1% antimony. 

Delta Metal. — ^An alloy widely used for 
making parts of machinery, and also for 
artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta 
metal. _ This is a variety of brass hard- 
ened with iron ; some manufacturers add 
small quantities of tin and lend, also, in 
some cases, nickel. The following analy- 
ses of Delta m^tal (from the factory at 
Diisseldorf) will show its usual composi- 
tion : 

I. II. III. IV. V. 
55.94 55.80 55.82 54.22 58.65 
41.61 40.07 41.41 42.25 38.95 



Copper. . 

Zinc. . . . 

Lerd.... 

Iron. . . . 

M'ganese 

Nickel... 

Phosph's. 



0.72 

0.87 

0.81 

* 



1.8- > 

1.28 

0.96 

* 



0.013 0.011 



0.76 
0.86 
1.38 
0.06 



110 
0.99 
1.09 
0.16 
0.02 



0.67 
1.62 

0.11 



'Slight traces. 



Tobin Bronze. — This alloy is very sim- 
ilar in composition and properties to 
Delta metal. S_ome analyses are given : 



I. 

Copper . . . 61.203 

Zinc 27.440 

Tin 0.906 

Iron 0.180 

Lead 0.359 

Silver 

Phosphorus .... 

The alloy marked IV is called in com- 
merce deoxidized bronze. 



IL 

59.00 

38.40 

2.16 

0.11 

0.31 



IIL 


IV. 


61.20 


82.67 


37.14 


3.23 


0.90 


12.40 


0.18 


0.10 


0.35 


2.14 


. . . 


0.07 




0.005 



Some Varieties of Modern Brass 



Name. Color. 

1. Jewelers' gilding alloy Red 

2. Jewelers' gilding alloy Red 

3. Pinchbeck Reddish yellow 

4. Oreide (French gold) Reddish yellow 

5. Talmi gold* Gold 

6. Tissier's metal, with 1% arsenic. .Red 

7. Tournay's alloy Yellow 

8. Rich sheet brass Yellow 

9. Bath metal, similor, etc Yellow 

10. Dutch alloy Yellow 70 

11. Bristol sheet brass Bright yellow. 

12. Brass wire Bright yellow. 

13. Prince's metal Yellow 

14. Sheet and wire brass Full yellow. . . 

15. Mosaic gold, ordinary brass Full yellow. . . 

16. Bobierre's metal Full yellow. . . 

17. Muntz's metal Full yellow. . . 

18. Muntz's metal Full yellow. . . 

[ 165 ] 



Copper 


Zinc. 


94 


6 


90.5 


7.9 


88.8 


11.2 


90 


10 


90.70 


8.33 


97 


2 


82.54 


17.46 


84 


16 


80 


20 


70 


24 


72.8 


27 


70 


30 


75 


25 


67 


33 


66.6 


33.3 


66 


34 


62 


38 


60 


40 



Tin. Lead. Iron. 



1.6 



0.2 



(Brass) 



(Br^ss) 



Name. Color. Copper. 

19. Gedge's metal Full yellow 60 

20. Common brass Full yellow . 64 

21. Aich's metal Full yellow 60 

22. French brass (Potin jaune) Gray yellow. . . 71.9 

23. Hamilton's metal, chrysorin. Full yellow 64.5 

24. French brass for fine castings. . . .Full yellow. ... 71 

25. Sterro metal 55.5 

26. Hard solder for copper or iron 57 

27. Hard solder for brass 50 

28. Dipping brass 53 

29. White brass 34 

30. Lap alloy 12.5 

♦Also contains 0.97% gold. 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Iron. 


38.5 






1.5 


36 


, , 


, . 


. 


38.2 


. 




1.8 


24.9 


1.2 


2.0 




32.5 


0.3 


2.7 




24 


2 


3 




42 






2.5 


43 








50 








47 








66 






• . 


87.5 









Brass.— Table 
Name. Authority. 

1. Brass, English Lavater 

2. Brass, Heegermuhl Lavater 

3. Brass, Augsburg Lavater 

4. Brass, Neustadt Kadernatsch. . 

5. Brass, Romilly Chaudet 

6. Brass, unknown Karsten , 

7. Brass, unknown Regnault 

8. Brass, unknown Chaudet 

9. Brass, Stolberg Chaudet 

10. Watch wheels Faisst 

11. Watch wheels Faisst 

12. Ship nails, bad Percy 

13. Ship nails, good Percy 

14. Tombac, English Faisst 

15. Tombac, German Karsten 

16. Coin of Titus Claudius Giraldin 

17. Coin of Titus, 79 a.d Phillips , 

18. Coin of Hadrian, 120 a.d Phillips 

19. Coin of Faustina, Jr., 105 A.D.Phillips 

20. Antique bracelet, Naumberg. . .Goebel 

21. Statue of Louis XIV D'Arcet 

22. Statue of Napoleon D'Arcet 

23. Brass for gilding D'Arcet 

24. Brass D'Arcet 

25. Brass D'Arcet 

26. Brass D'Arcet 

27. Brass, color pale yellow Konig 

28. Brass, color deep yellow Konig 

29. Brass, color red yellow Konig 

30. Brass, color orange Konig 

31. Brass, color copper-red Konig 

32. Brass, color violet Konig 

33. Brass, color green Konig 



of Various Oopper-Zinc Alloys. 



Copper. 
70.29 
70.16 
70.89 
71.36 
70.1 
71.5 
71.0 
61.59 
65.8 
60.66 
66.06 
52.73 
62.62 
86.38 
84.0 
81.4 
83.04 
85.67 
79.15 
83.08 
91.40 
75 
82 
64.5 
82 
78 

82.33 
84.5 
90 

98.93 
99.9 
98.22 
84.32 



Zinc. 

29.26 

27.45 

27.63 

28.15 

29.9 

28.5 

27.6 

35.33 

31.8 

36.88 

31.46 

41.18 

24.64 

13.61 

15.5 

18.6 

15.84 

10.83 

6.67 
15.38 

5.53 
20 
15.5 
32.5 
15 
20 

16.69 
15.3 

9.6 

0.73 

*6.5 
15.02 



Tin. 
0.17 
0.79 
0.85 



trace 
0.25 
0.25 
1.35 
1.43 

*2.64 



1.14 

4.97 

1.54 

1.7 

3 

2.5 

2.5 

3 

2 



trace 
trace 



Lead. Iron. 

0.28 . o 

0.2 .. 



1.3 

2.86 
2.15 



4.72 
8.69 



1.73 

9.18 

'i.37 
2 



0.74 

0.88 



trace 



0.5 

0.71 

0.23 



0.08 

trace 

0.3 



Machine Brasses 



Copper. Tin. Zinc. Lead. 

Eccentric rings... 90 7.7 2.3 

Eccentric rings... 66 15.5 18.5 

Pumps 84 7 9 

Pumps 34 50 16 

Kingston valve 84.2 10.5 5.3 

Cocks and glands. 81 3 13 



Copper. Tin. Zinc. Lead. 
Paddle-wheel pins. 76.8 17.4 5.8 .. 



Sluice cockway. ... 81 
Propeller blades and 

boxes 57 

Hydraulic pumps. 81 

Propeller shaft liner 80 



19 



14 



29 
. 19 
5.4 14.6 



[166] 



(Gold) 



( Iron ) 



GOLD 

Aluminum and Gold Alloy. — This al- 
loy, called Nuremberg gold, is used for 
making cheap gold ware, and is excellent 
for this purpose, as its color is exactly 
that of pure gold, and does not change 
in the air. Articles made of Nuremberg 
gold need no gilding, and retain their 
color under the hardest usage ; even the 
fracture of this alloy shows the pure 
gold color. The composition is usually 
90 parts of copper, 2.5 parts of gold, and 
7.5 parts of aluminum. 

Chains, Alloy for. — 1.. — Fine gold, 11 
dwts. 6 gr. ; fine silver, 2 dwts. 5 gr. ; 
fine copper, 6 dwts. 13 gr- 

2. — Fine gold, 1 oz, ; fine silver, 9 dwts. ; 
fine copper, 8 dwts, 

Colored Gold. — The alloys of gold with 
copper have a reddish tinge, those of gold 
with silver are whiter, and an alloy of 
gold, silver and copper together is dis- 
tinguished by a greenish tone. Manu- 
facturers of gold ware make use of these 
different colors, one piece being frequently 
composed of several pieces of varying 
color. Below are given some of these 
alloys, with their colors : 



1.— 

Gold. 

2to6 

75.0 

74.6 

75.0 

1.0 

4.0 

14.7 

14.7 

3.0 

10.0 

1.0 

1.0 

30.0 

4.0 

29.0 

lto3 

2.— 



;2 

Color o 

O 



Sil- 
ver. 
1.0 
16.6 
11.4 
12.5 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 
9.0 
1.0 
1.0 



3.0 

ii!6 



Cop- Cad- 

per. Steel, mium. Color. 

Green 

8.4 Green 

9.7 ... 4.3 Green 
12.5 ... 12.5 Green 

Pale yellow 



1.0 
6.0 
4.0 
1.0 
4.0 
1.0 
2.0 



2.0 
1.0 

i.o 



Deep yellow 
Deep yellow 
Deep yellow 
Light red 
Light red 
Bright red 
Bright 
Gray 
Gray 
Gray 
Blue 



red 



White 
White 
Gray . 
Gray , 
Gray , 
Green 
Green 
Green 
Green 



100 



85.7 
83.3 
72.5 
75 

75 
74.6 

75 



Pale yell'w 91.67 



25 
16.6 
11.4 
12.5 
8.33 



5.7 
16.7 



100 



9.7 



8.4 

4.3 

12.5 









S 






u 


3 


Color r3 


> 




5 '^ 


o 


xn 


o 

o 


c ^ 


Pale yell'w 91.67 






8.33 . . 


Very pale. 50 


50 






Yellow ...100 








Deep yel'w 90 




io 




Deep yel'w 53 


25 


oo 




Red 75 




2?) 




Dark red. 50 




50 




Dark red. 25 


' * 


75 




Blue 75 






25 W 


Blue 66.7 


'. ' 




33.3 .. 


Jap'ese blue 








gold ItolO 


.. 99 


to 90 


. . 



Imitation Gold Alloys 

Gold Dutch, Mannheim gold, mosaic 
gold, ormolu, pinchbeck, Prince's metal, 
red brass similor, tombac. These names 
are applied to several varieties of fine 
gold-colored brass, differing slightly in 
tint, and in the proportions of copper and 
zinc. At the celebrated works of Heger- 
miihl, near Potsdam, the proportions, cop- 
per 11 parts to zinc 2 parts, are employed 
to produce a metal which is afterward 
rolled into sheets for the purpose of mak- 
ing Dutch gold leaf. This alloy has a 
very rich, deep gold color. Its malleabil- 
ity is so remarkable that it may be beaten 
out into leaves not exceeding 1-52900 
inch in thickness. 

Leaf Brass. — 1. — This alloy is also 
called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. 
It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts : 
zinc, 15.5 to 22.25 parts. Its color i-> 
pale or bright yellow or greenish, accord 
ins: to the proportions of the meta]:^. 1* 
has an unusual degree of ductility. 

2. — DeeD gold. Pure gold. Pale irold. 
Gopper . . 84.5 78 76 

Zinc .... 15.5 22 14 



Deep gold. 
Copper . . 91 
Zinc 9 



Deep gold. 
86 
14 



Gold. 
83 
17 



IRON 

Ferro-manganese is a variety of metal 
specially manufactured in a blast furnace 
from ores rich in oxide of manganese, and 
is very extensively used in the manufac- 
ture of mild steel. When the pig iron 
contains less than about 20% mau^^anese 
its fracture shows large crystalline cleav- 
age planes, and it is then termed spie- 
geleisen. The variety known as fev.*o- 
manganese is a hard, crystalline bodv, but 
the fractured surface does not present the 
large cleavage planes so characteri.slic of 
sDiegeleisen. It contains from 20 to .85% 
of manganese. 



[167] 



( Platinum ) 



(Silver) 



LEAD 

Bullet Metal. — Lead, 98 parts ; arsenic, 
2 parts. For round shot, the fused metal 
is dropped from a high elevation in a 
shot tower into a basin of water; or 
thrown down a stack of limited height, 
in which a strong draught of air is pro- 
duced by a blower. 

Magnolia Metal. — Lead, 840 parts; an- 
timony, 7l^ parts; tin, 2l^ parts; bis- 
muth, Ys part ; aluminum, % Part ; graph- 
ite, Vs part. 

MANGANESE 

Manganese Bronze. — Copper and iron 
unite at high temperatures in various pro- 
portions, forming alloys of great hardness, 
and when the iron is present in certain 
proportions the tenacity and elasticity of 
the copper are increased. The same re- 
marks apply to brass and bronze. It 
should be stated, however, that the above 
properties are acquired at the expense of 
ductility and toughness. 

The use of ferro-manganese in making 
manganese bronze is objectionable, owing 
to the iron introduced, but this objection 
can be avoided by the adoption of a rich 
alloy of copper and manganese, now ob- 
tainable commercially, by the use of which 
a very pure series of manganese bronze 
can readily be produced. One of the best 
of these, suitable for gun wheels, pro- 
pellers and mining machinery, had the 
following composition : Copper, 5o% ; 
zinc, 42% ; manganese, 3.75% ; aluminum, 
1.25%. The absence of iron permits the 
use of the large proportion of zinc with- 
out risk of rendering the metal brittle. 
The addition of the aluminum is neces- 
sary with the above alloy, as otherwise 
it is difficult to obtain sound castings. 

PLATINUM 

Platinum Bronze. — Several _ alloys of 
platinum, of a comparatively inexpensive 
nature, have been manufactured under the 
above name, and it has been claimed for 
them that they are indifferent to the ac- 
tion of air and water. They admit of a 
high polish, and retain their luster for a 
long time. The following are some of 
their compositions and uses : For table 
utensils, nickel, 90% ; platinum, 0.9% ; 
tin, 9%. For bells, nickel, 81.5«% ; plati- 
num. 0.8% ; tin, 16% : silver. 1.7%. For 
articles of liixurv. nick<^l, 86.5% : plati- 
num, 0.5% ; tin. 1.^%. For tubes for tele- 
scopes, etc.. mVkel. 71% ; platinum, 
14.5% : tin, 14.5%. For ornaments, nick- 
el, 31.6% ; platinum, 3.2% ; brass, 65.2%. 



SILVER 

Silver and Aluminum. — 1. — Alloys of 
these metals were made some years ago, 
and it was thought that valuable metals 
of a white color, and unaffected by the at- 
mosphere, would be obtained, which would 
make them superior to ordinary silver 
copper alloys ; but these great expecta- 
tions have not as yet been realized. Alum- 
inum hardens silver, and the alloys admit 
of a high polish. 

2. — Tiers-Argent. — This alloy is chiefly 
prepared in Paris, and used for the man- 
ufacture of various utensils. As indi- 
cated by its name (one-third silver), it 
consists of 33.33 parts of silver and 66.66 
parts of aluminum. Its advantages over 
silver consist in its lower price and great- 
er hardness ; it can also be stamped and 
engraved more easily than the alloys of 
copper and silver. 

Silver, Copper, Nickel and Zinc. — 
These alloys, from the metals contained 
in them, may be characterized as argen- 
tan or German silver with a percentage 
of silver. They have been used for mak- 
ing small coins, as in the older coins of 
Switzerland. Being quite hard, they have 
the advantage of wearing well, but soon 
lose their beautiful white color and take 
on a disagreeable shade of yellow, like 
poor brass. The silver contained in them 
can only be regained by a laborious proc- 
ess, which is a great drawback to their 
use. in coinage. 

^ 1. — The composition of the Swiss frac- 
tional coins is as follows : 

20 10 5 

centimes, centimes centimes. 

Silver 15 10 5 

Copper 50 55 60 

Nickel 25 25 25 

Zinc 10 10 10 

2. — 'Argent-Ruolz. — The articles which 
are manufactured by the Paris firm of 
Ruolz, under the name of Ruolz silver, or 
Argent Francais, resemble pure silver per- 
fectly in appearance, but differ from the 
latter in greater hardness and a much 
lower price. According to the quality of 
the object, various alloys are employed in 
the factories of Ruolz silver. We give 
below the composition of some of the al- 
loys as produced in the French factories : 
I. II. IIL 

Silvpr 33 40 20 

Copper 37-42 30-40 45-55 

Nickel 25-30 20-30 25-35 

3. — 'Sterling silver. — Fine silver, 5 oz. 
11 dwt. : fine copper, 9 dwt. 
1 4. — Equal to sterling-fine silver, 1 oz. ; 
1 fine copper, 1 dwt. 12 gr. 



[168] 



(Silver Substitutes) 



(Tin Bearing Metals) 



5._,>siello. — This consists of silver, 9 
parts; copper, 1 part; lead, 1 part; bis- 
muth, 1 part; which are melted together, 
and saturated with sulphur. This mix- 
ture produces the gorgeous blue which has 
often been erroneously spoken of as steel 
blue. 

Silver and Nickel. — Berthier described 
an alloy of these metals containing 13.5% 
nickel which was white, and capable of a 
high polish; it rolled well, and was very 
tough. There appears to be very little 
known concerning alloys of these two 
metals alone. 

Silver and Tin.— 1.— A very small 
quantity of tin renders silver brittle. Al- 
loys of tin and silver, according to Guet- 
tier, are harsh, very hard, and brittle. 
An alloy of 80% tin is nearly as hard as 
bronze. An alloy of 52% tin is somewhat 
malleable. These alloys are very easily 
oxidized. They have a specific gravity 
less than the mean of the constituents. 
Tin may be removed from silver by fusion 
with bichloride of mercury (corrosive 
sublimate), leaving the silver pure. Den- 
tists use an alloy of 60 parts silver and 40 
parts tin, in admixture with mercury, 
for filling teeth. 

2.— Dental Alloys.— (a) Tin, 91.63 
parts; silver, 3.82 parts; copper, 4.4 
parts, (b) Tin, 36.78 parts; silver, 48.32 
parts; gold, 14.72 parts. 

Silver and Zinc. — Silver and zinc have 
great affinity for each other, and alloys of 
these two metals are, therefore, easily 
made. The required quantity of zinc, 
wrapped in a paper, is thrown into the 
melted and strongly heated silver, the 
mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron 
rod, and at once poured out into molds. 
Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained 
which are both ductile and flexible. An 
alloy consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 
part of silver closely resembles silver in 
color, and is quite ductile. With a larger 
proportion of zinc the alloys become brit- 
tle. In preparing the alloy, a somewhat 
larger quantity of zinc must be taken 
than the finished alloy is intended to con- 
tain, as a small amount always volatil- 
izes. Berthier prepared an alloy contain- 
ing 80% of silver, which he states was 
rolled into very thin leaf; it was rigid, 
elastic, very tenacious, and tough. 

Silver Substitutes. — 1. — ^A writer gives 
the constituents of a hard alloy which 
has been found very useful for the spac- 
ing levers of typewriters. The metal now 
generally used for this purpose by the 
various typewriter companies is "alumi- 
num silver," or "silver metal." The pro- 



portions are given as follows : Copper, 
57% ; nickel, 20% ; zinc, 20% ; aluminum, 
3%. This alloy, when used on typewrit- 
ing machines, is nickel-plated, for the 
sake of the first appearance ; but so far 
as corrosion is concerned, nickeling is un- 
necessary. In regard to its other quali- 
ties, they are of a character that rec- 
ommends the alloy for many purposes. It 
is stiff and strong, and cannot be bent 
to any extent without breaking, especially 
if the percentage of aluminum is in- 
creased to 3.5% ; it casts free from pin- 
holes and blowholes. The liquid metal 
completely fills the mold, giving sharp, 
clean castings, true to pattern ; its cost 
is not greater than brass ; r its color is 
silver white, and its hardness makes it 
susceptible of a high polish. 

2. — Iron, 65 parts ; tungsten, 4 parts ; 
melted together and granulated. Also 
nickel. 23 parts ; aluminum, 5 parts ; cop- 
per, 5 parts ; in a separate crucible, to 
which is added a piece of sodium, in 
order to prevent oxidation. The two 
granulated alloys are then melted togeth- 
er. Both alloys resist the action oi sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. 

TIN 
Bearing Metals 

Anti-friction Metal. — 1. — Tin, 16 to 20 
parts ; antimony, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part ; 
fused together and then blended with 
copper, 80 parts. Used where there is 
much friction or high velocity. 

2. — Zinc, 6 parts ; tin, 1 part ; copper, 
20 parts. Used when the metal is ex- 
posed to violent shocks. 

3. — Lead, 1 part ; tin, 2 parts ; zinc, 4 
parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when the 
metal is exposed to heat. 

4.— (Babbitt's.) Tin, 48 to 50 parts; 
antimony, 5 parts ; copper, 1 part. 

5. — "(Fenton's.) Tin, with some zinc 
and a little copper. 

6. — (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, 
with or without a small portion of anti- 
mony or copper. Without the copper it is 
apt to spread out under the weight of 
heavy machinery. Used for the bearings 
of locomotive engines, etc. 

Babbitt Metal. — ^"Genuine" babbitt is 
composed of a small quantity of copper 
added to tin and antimony. No lead is 
used, for the adjective "genuine" is ap- 
plied especially to distinsuish it fvom the 
cheaper grades containing lead. There is 
considerable temptation to adulterate it 
with Ipad. owing to the differen^P jn value 
of lead and tin ; 1 lb. of lead added to 100 
lb. of 'genuine" makes a gain of about 



[169] 



(White Alloys) 








(White Alloys) 






3.— 


Table of White Alloys. 
























Cop- 


Anti- 


Bis- 




Silver. Nickel. 


Brass 


Zinc. Tin 


. Lead 


per. 


mony. 


muth. 


Description. 


dwts. dwts. 


lb. 


dwts. 


lb 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


Nickel, or German silver 


... 3.0 


.... 


16.0 






1.0 






White copper of China 


... 15.0 


.... 


13.0 






1.0 






Queen's metal 





.... 


'lb.* 


9.0 2.0 


... 


1.0 


2.6 


Britannia metal 




1.0 


i9.0 ... 


1.0 


3.5 




White button metal. . . . 






16.0 


2.0 


1.0 ... 








Solder for bell metal.. 


... 




2.0 


.... 


1.5 ... 


1.0 


... 




Solder for brass 






1.0 


.... 


0.6 ... 


0.15 






Solder for tin 






. . . 


.... 


1.0 0.5 


... 


... 


... 


Solder for silver 


i.o 




0.5 


.... 


. . . 










Solder for silver 


1.0 




0.3 


.... 










... 


Solder for silver 


4.0 




.... 


.... 


. • . 




i.o 






Solder for Mokume 


1.0 




0.15 


.... 












French coin 


835.0 

950.0 







so'.o 


•• 




165.6 


... 




M. Piligot's coin alloy. . 


... 


M. Piligot's coin alloy. . 


900.0 




.... 


100.0 










... 


M. Piligot's coin alloy.. 


800.0 




.... 


200.0 












M. Piligot's coin alloy. . 


900.0 




.... 


50.0 






50.0 


... 




M. Piligot's coin alloy . . 


800.0 




.... 


100.0 






100.0 


.. . 


... 


M. Piligot's coin alloy.. 


835.0 






72.0 






93.0 


... 




Gin shi bu ichi 


100.0 .... 











30 to 50 


... 





18 cents. The character of the alloy 
would not be greatly altered, but when 
the purchaser pays for the best he cer- 
tainly has a right to expect it. Fortu- 
nately, it is easy to detect such adultera- 
tion.^ Take a piece and use it for a pen- 
cil ; if it makes a mark, then it contains 
lead, as a small amount of lead added to 
tin causes the latter to mark paper. 

WTiite Metal. — The so-called white met- 
als are employed almost exclusively for 
bearings. In the technology of mechan- 
ics an accurate distinction is made be- 



tween the different kinds of metals for 
bearings ; and they may be classed in two 
groups, red-brass and white metal. The 
red-brass bearings are characterized by 
great hardness and power of resistance, 
and are principally used for bearings of 
heavily loaded and rapidly revolving axles. 
For the axles of large and heavy fly- 
wheels, revolving at great speed, bearings 
of red brass are preferable to white metal, 
though more expensive. In recent years, 
many machinists have found it advan- 
tageous to substitute for the soft alloys 



White Metals for Bearings 





Tin. 


Antimony. 


Zinc. Iron. 


Lead. 


Copper. 


German, light loads 


. 85.00 


10.00 






5.00 


German, light loads 


. 82.00 


11.00 






7.00 


German, light loads 


. 80.00 


12.00 






8.00 


German, light loads 


. 76.00 


17.00 






7.00 


German, light loads ....... 


. 3.00 


1.00 


5.00 


3.00 


1.00 


German, heavy loads 


. 90.00 


8.00 






2.00 


German, heavy loads 


. 86.81 


7.62 






5.57 


English, heavy loads 


. 17.47 




76.14 




5.62 


English, medium loads 


. 76.70 


15.50 






7.80 


English medium loads 


. 72.00 


26.00 






2.00 


For mills 


. 15 00 




40 00 


42 00 


3 00 


For mills 




1.00 


5.00 


5.00 




For mills 




1.00 


10.00 


2.00 




Heavy axles 


. 72.70 


18.20 






9.10 


Heavy axles 


. 38.00 


6.00 


47.00 


4.00 


1.00 


Rapidly revolving axles. . . 


. 17.00 


77.00 


, . 




6.00 


Very hard metal 


. 55.00 




70.00 




2.50 


Very hard metal 


. 12.00 


82.66 


2.00 




4.0O 


Cheap metal 


. 2.00 


2.00 


88.00 




8.00 


Cheap metal 


1.50 


1.50 


90.00 




700 







[170] 



(White Alloys for Bearings) 



"White Alloys for Bearings 



Kingston's metal with 6% of mercury 
added 

Fenton's metal for axle boxes of loco- 
motives and wagons 

Stephenson's alloy 

For propeller boxes 

Dew Pance's metal for locomotives. . 

Hoyle's alloy for pivot bearings. . . . 

Jacoby's alloy 

For propeller bush., 

Very hard bearing 

Anti-friction metal 

For general bearings 

For general bearings 

For general bearings 

For general bearings 

Bearings for light work 

Bearings for light work 

Bearings for light work 

Bearings for heavy work 

Bearings for heavy work 

Bearings for common work 

Soft alloy for pillow blocks 

Vaucher's alloy for lining journals. . 



Tin. Copper. Antimony. Lead. 
88.0 6.0 



14.5 


5.5 






80.0 


31.0 


19.0 


.... 


.... 


19.0 


14.0 


57.0 




.... 


29.0 


33.3 


22.2 


44.4 


. . 




46.0 




12.0 


42.0 




85.0 


5.0 


10.0 






26.0 


5.0 




.... 


69.0 


12.0 


4.0 


82.6 


.... 


2.0 


14.0 


6.0 


.... 




80.0 


81.0 


5.0 




14.0 




81.0 


5.0 


14.0 








10.0 


10.0 


80.0 






12.0 


.... 


88.0 


.... 


85.0 


5.0 


10.0 






73.0 


9.0 


18.0 






76.0 


7.0 


17.0 




. 


90.0 


2.0 


8.0 






87.0 


6.0 


7.0 






2.0 


8.0 


2.0 
15.0 


85!6 


88.0 


i8.6 


.... 


2.5 


4.5 


75.0 



Zinc. Iron. 



31.0 



generally in use for bearings a metal al- 
most as hard as the axle itself. Phos- 
phor bronze is frequently employed for 
this purpose, as it can easily be made as 
hard as wrought or cast steel. In this 
case the metal is used in a thin layer, 
and serves only, as it were, to fill out th« 
small interstices caused by wear on the 
axle and bearing, the latter being usually 
made of some rather easily fusible alloy 
of lead and tin. Such bearings are very 
durable, but expensive, and can only be 
used for large machines. For small ma- 
chines, running gently and uniformly, 
white-metal bearings are preferred, and 
do excellent work, if the axle is not too 
heavily loaded. For axles which have a 
high rate of revolution, bearings made of 
quite hard metals are chosen, and with 
proper card — which, indeed, must be given 
to bearings of any material — they will 
last for a long time without needing 
repair. 

Britannia Metals 

Britannia metal is an alloy consisting 
principally of tin and antimony. Many 
varieties contain only these two metal?!, 
and may be considered simply as tin hard- 
ened with antimony, while others contain, 
in addition, certain quantities of copper, 
sometimes lead, and occasionally, though 
rorolv, on account of its cost, bismuth. 
Britannia metal is always of a silvery- 
whitA r«olor, with a bluish tinge, and its 
hardness makes it capable of taking a 



high polish, which is not lost through 
exposure to the air. Tin, 90%, and anti- 
mony 10%. give a composition which is 
the best for many purposes, esT)eci<ll.v 
for casting, as it fills out the molds well; 
and is readily fusible. In some cases, 
where articles made from it are to be 
subjected to constant wear, a harder iVoy 
is required. In the proportions giv^^n 
above the metal is indeed much harder 
th.'^n tin, but would still soon give way 
under usage. A table is appended giving 
the composition of some of the varieties 
of Britannia metal and their special 
names : 



English 

English 

English 

English 

Pewter 

Pewter 

Tutania 

Queen's metal 

(German 

Herman 

German (for 

castine) . . . 
Malleable (for 

casting) . . . 



Anti- Cop- 
Tin, mony. per. Zinc. 
81.90 16.2.5 1.84 .... 



90.62 
90.1 

8.5.4 

81,2 

89.3 

91.4 

88.5 

72 

84 

20 

48 



7.81 1.46 
6..3 ?>.l 
9.66 0.81 3.06 
5.7 1.60 .... 

1.8 .... 

0.7 

8.5 

4 

2 



7.6 

'i'.i 

24 
9 



0.5 



0.3 
0.9 



Lead. 



11.5 
1.8 
7.6 



64 



Britannia metal is nreparpd by melt- 
ing the copper alone first, then adding a 
part of the tin and the whole of the anti- 
mony. The heat can then be quickly mod- 
erated, as the melting point of the new 
alloy is much lower than that of copper. 



[171] 



(Tin-Lead Alloys) 



(Type Metals) 



Finally, the rest of the tin is added, and 
the mixture stirred constantly for some 
time to make it thoroughly homogeneous. 

Tin-Lead 

1. — 'In tormer times, before porcelain 
came into general use, alloys of tin and 
lead were very extensively used for the 
manufacture of the so-called tin-ware, 
which probably never consisted of pure 
tin, but always of a mixture of tin and 
lead. Tin is one of those metals which 
is not at all susceptible to the action of 
acids, while lead, on the other hand, is 
very easily attacked by them. In such 
alloys, consequently, used for cooking 
.utensils, the amount of lead must be lim- 
ited, and should properly not exceed 10 
or 15% ; but cases have been known in 
which the so-called tin contained a third 
part, by weight, of lead. Alloys contain- 
ing from 10 to 15% of lead have a beau- 
tiful white color, are considerably harder 
than pure tin, and much cheaper. Many 
alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, 
and are used for stage jewelry and mir- 
rors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. 
An especinlly brilliant alloy is called 
''Fahlun brilliants." It is used for stage 
jewelry, and consists of 29 parts of tin 
and 19 parts of lead. It is poured into 
molds faceted in the same way as dia- 
monds, and when seen by artificial light 
the effect is that of diamonds. Other al- 
loys of tin and lead are employed in the 
manufacture of toys. These must fill the 
molds well, and must also be cheap, ana 
therefore as much as 50% of lead is used. 
Toys can also be made from type metal, 
which is even cheaper than the alloys of 
tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of 
readily breaking if the articles are 
sharply bent. The alloys of tin and lead 
give very good castings, if sharp iron or 
brass molds are used. 

2. — Tin, 82 parts; lead, 18 parts, anti- 
mony, 5 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; copper, 4 
parts. 

Pewter. — 1. — Prep. (Aiken.) Tin, 100 
parts ; antimony, 8 parts ; copper, 4 
parts ; bismuth, 1 part : fuse together. 
Very fine. 

2.— Plate Pewter.— Tin, 100 parts ; an- 
timony, 8 parts ; bismuth and copper, of 



each 2 parts. Very fine. Used to make 
plates, etc. 

3. — Trifle. — Tin, 83 parts; antimony, 
17 parts. Some lead is generally added. 

4. — ^Ley. — Tin, 4 parts; lead, 1 part. 
Used for beer pots, etc. 

5.-^Best Pewter.— Tin, 5 lb.; lead, 1 
lb. 

6. — Common Pewter. — ^Pure tin, 82 
parts ; lead, 18 parts. 

7. — Plate Pewter. — Tin, 90 parts; an- 
timony, 7 parts; bismuth, 2 parts; cop- 
per, 2 parts. 

Stereotype Metal 

Tin, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; lead, 4 
parts. In using stereotype metal, brush 
the type with plumbago or a small quan- 
tity of oil, then place in a frame, and 
take a cast with plaster of paris. The 
cast is dried in a very hot oven, placed 
face downward upon a flat plate of iron; 
this plate is laid in a tray or pan of iron 
having a lid securely fastened, and fur- 
nished with a hole at each corner. Dip 
the tray in the fluid metal, wMch will 
flow in at the four corners. When the 
tray is removed, dip the bottom only in 
water ; and as the metal contracts in cool- 
ing, pour in melted metal at the corners, 
so as to keep up the fluid pressure, and 
obtain a good solid cast. When cool, 
open the tray, remove the cake of plas- 
ter and metal, and beat the edges with 
a mallet to remove superfluous metal. 
Plane the edges square, turn the back 
flat, in a lathe, to the required thick- 
ness, and remove any defects. If any 
letters are damaged, cut them out and 
solder in separate types instead. Finally, 
fix upon hardwood to the required height. 

Type Metals 

An alloy which is to serve for type 
metal must allow of being readily cast, 
fill out the molds sharply, and be as hard 
as possible. It is difficult to satisfy all 
these requirements entirely, but an alloy 
of antimony and lead answers the pur- 
pose best. At the present day there are 
a great many formulae for type metal in 
which other metals besides lead and anti- 
mony are used, either to make the alloy 
more readily fusible, as in the case of 



1.— 

Lead 


I. 
3 


II. 

'5 
1 


III. 

10 

1 


IV. 

10 

'i 


V. 

70 

18 
2 

io 


VI. 

60 
20 

20 


VII. 
55 

25 

20 


VITT. 

55 
30 

15 


IX. 

100 

30 

8 

2 

20 

8 


X. 

6 


Antimony 

Copper 

Bismuth 

Zinc 


1 


"4 

90 


Tin 

Nickel 







[ 172 1 



(Tungsten Bronzes) 







(Amalgams) 






Anti- 




Bis- 


(Cop- 






mony. 


Tin. 


muth. 


per. 


Zinc. 


Arsenic. 


1.0 


.... 


... 




.... 


... 


2.5 


.... 


... 


0.5 




... 


1.0 










0.5 


8.0 


12.0 


... 


... 


16.0 


... 


2.0 




2.0 






... 


4.0 


5.0 




... 


. ... 


... 


1.0 


.... 




... 


.... 


... 


1.0 


.... 






.... 


... 


2.0 


.... 


1.0 


... 


.... 




5.0 


5.0 










2.5 


7.5 




... 






8.0 


12.0 




... 


16.0 


... 


2.5 


37.5 


... 


... 







2. — Type Metal, Alloys used for. 

Lead. 

Printing types 4.0 

Printing types 7.5 

Printing types 9.0 

Printing types 64.0 

Small types and stereotypes . . 9.0 
Small types and stereotypes. . 16.0 
Small types and stereotypes.. 3.0 
Small types and stereotypes. . 5.0 
Small types and stereotypes. . 10.0 

Plates for engraving music, etc 

Plates for engraving music, etc 

Plates for engraving music, etc. 64.0 
Plates for engraving music, etc. 60.0 



additions of bismuth, or to give it greater 
power of resistance, the latter being of 
especial importance in newspaper types, 
which are subjected to constant use. Cop- 
per and iron have been recommended for 
this purpose, but the fusibility of the al- 
loys is greatly impaired by these, and the 
manufacture of the types is consequently 
more difficult than with an alloy of lead 
and antimony alone. In the preceding 
table some alloys suitable for casting type 
are given : 

TUNGSTEN BRONZES 

In the arts, tungsten bronzes of differ- 
ent colors are used, namely, golden yel- 
low, reddish yellow, purple red, and blue. 
The first two crystallize in forms resem- 
bling cubes, while the third is obtained 
partially in cubes and partially in amor- 
phous pieces, and the last named forms 
prismatic crystals. Other circumstances 
being equal, the yellow bronze is obtained 
from mixtures poor in acid, the other 
two from those containing more acid. 
But the color is dependent not merely on 
the composition of the soda tungstate salt, 
but also on the amount of tin, and on 
the duration of the fusion ; so that when 
much tin is used, and the fusion is pro- 
longed, a yellow bronze is obtained from 
a very acid mixture, and, on the contrary, 
a salt that is but slightly acid, when 
fused only a short time and with very lit- 
tle tin, may yield a red or even a blue 
bronze. 

A mixture in the proportion of 2 mole- 
cules of soda tungstate and 1 molecule 
of anhydrous tungstic acid, with tinfoil 
slowly added, and kept melted for 1 or 2 
hours, will yield cubes 1-5 in. long when 
about 4 oz. are melted, and they will 
produce a yellow or reddish-yellow bronze, 
the powder of which seems light brown, 
and when stirred up with water it im- 
parts to the liquid the property of ap- 



pearing of a fine blue color by trans- 
mitted light. 

The red bronze obtained from 10 parts 
of soda carbonate, 70 parts of soda tung- 
state, and 20 parts of tinfoil, yields, on 
pulverization, a powder that, stirred up 
in water, transmits green light. 

According to J. Philipp, a blue bronze 
is always obtained, if the fused mixture 
contains more than 3 molecules of tung- 
stic acid to 1 molecule of soda ; if the 
fused product is boiled alternately with 
muriatic acid and with carbonate of soda, 
the result will be a considerable quantity 
of fine blue prismatic crystals with which 
there are intermixed, in most cases, single 
red and yellow cubes. Moreover, all the 
tungsten bronzes obtained by fusion with 
tin can also be prepared by electrolysis 
of fused acid tungstates, but the yield is 
so small that it is unprofitable. 

ZINC 

Zinc Bronzes (Fontainemoreau). 
Zn. Cu. Fe. Pb. 

90 8 1 1 

91 8 1 
92 8 
92 7 1 

The above may be considered the maxi- 
mum of zinc and minimum of copper that 
will cast free of crystalline fracture. By 
lessening the zinc from 1 to 4%, and 
increasing the copper 1-8 to 1-6, a better 
texture may be looked for. 

Zinc-Nickel. — Zinc, 9 parts; nickel, 1 
part. Used for painting. 

AMALGAMS 
Mercury is well known to be the only 
metal which is liquid at ordinary tem- 
peratures. The best mercury is crystal- 
line in character, and of a silver-white 

^^^^i*A«^^^^^^°^ ^* ~^^° ^- and boiling 
at 662°. When compounded with other 
metals it forms alloys whose properties 
differ greatly according to the nature of 
the metals used. In most cases the 



[ 173 ] 



(Bismuth Amalgam) 



( Copper Amalgam ) 



amalgams are at first liquid, and after- 
ward become crystalline, any mercury in 
excess being separated. The amalgams 
oifer an excellent opportunity for study- 
ing the behavior of the metals toward 
each other, the low temperature at which 
these compounds are formed making the 
examination easier. If a metal is dis- 
solved in mercury with an excess of the 
latter, a crystalline compound will soon 
separate from the originally liquid mass. 
This is the amalgam, whose proportions 
can be expressed according to fixed atomic 
weights, and easily obtained by remov- 
ing the excess of mercury by pressure. 
Many amalgams are at first so soft that 
they can be kneaded in the hand like 
wax, but become hard and crystalline in 
time. These are especially adapted for 
filling teeth, and much used for that pur- 
pose. Before the action of the galvanic 
current upon metallic solutions was 
known, by means of which certain metals 
can be separated in a pure state from 
solutions, and deposited upon a giveu 
surface, the amalgams were of great im- 
portance in gilding and silvering. The 
article was coated with the amalgam, and 
the mercury volatilized by heat, the gold 
or silver remaining upon the surface as 
a coherent coat. The process was called 
fire gilding. The chemical afiinity of 
other metals for mercury varies greatly ; 
many combine with it very easily, others 
with such difficulty that an amalgam can 
only be obtained in a roundabout man- 
ner. Amalgams are of great interest 
theoretically, and important to a general 
knowledge of alloys, but only a limited 
number are actually employed in the 
industries. 

Bismuth Amalgam 

Mercury and bismuth can be very easily 
combined by melting the latter and intro- 
ducing the mercury. The resulting amal- 
gam is very thinly fluid, and can be used 
for filling out very delicate molds. An 
addition of bismuth also makes other 
amalgams more thinly fluid. Such com- 
binations are cheaper than pure bismuth 
amalgam, and frequently used. 

Bismuth amalgams can be used for 
nearly all purposes for which cadmium 
amalgams are employed. On account of 
their fine luster, which equals that of 
silver, they are applied to special pur- 
poses, such as curved mirrors, and the 
preparation of anatomical specimens. 

Bismuth Amalgams. — The amalgam 
formed of 1 part of bismuth and 4 parts 
of quicksilver will cause the strong au- 
herence of glass. For the purpose of 
economizing the bismuth, of which the 



price is high, the preceding amalgam is 
replaced by another composed of 2 parts 
of quicksilver, 1 part of bismuth, 1 part 
of lead and 1 part of tin. The laismuth, 
broken into small fragments, is added to 
the tin and lead, previously melted in 
the crucible, and when the mixture of 
the three metals becomes fluid the quick- 
silver is poured in, while stirring with 
an iron rod. The impurities floating on 
the surface are removed, and when tne 
temperature is sufficiently lowered this 
amalgam is slowly poured into the vessels 
to be tinned, which have been previously 
well cleaned and slightly heated. M. 
Ditte recommends for the same employ- 
ment, as a very strong adherent to the 
glass, an amalgam obtained by dissolving, 
hot, 2 parts of bismuth and 1 part of 
lead in a solution of 1 part of tin in 
10 parts of quicksilver. By causing a 
quantity of this amalgam to move around 
the inside of a receiver, clean, dry, and 
slightly heated, the surface will be 
covered with a thin, brilliant layer, which 
hardens quite rapidly. 

Cadmium Amalgam 

Cadmium Amalgams. — Amalgams of 
cadmium, formed of equal weights of 
cadmium and quicksilver, have much 
power of cohesion, and are quite malle- 
able ; the case is the same with an amal- 
gam formed of 1 part of cadmium and 2 
parts of quicksilver. They are used as 
dental cements, for plugging teeth ; for 
the same purpose an amalgam of 2 parts 
of quicksilver, 1 part of cadmium and 2 
parts of tin may be used. 

Evans's Metallic Cement. — This alloy 
is prepared by dissolving cadmium amal- 
gam (25.99 parts of cadmium and 74.01 
parts of mercury) in an excess of 
mercury, slightly pressing the solution in 
a leather bag and thoroughly kneading. 
If the amalgam is first hen ted to about 
97° F., and then kneaded, it becomes as 
plastic as wax, and can be shaped into 
any desired form. On cooling, it becomes 
quite hard, but does not equal in this 
respect the pure cadmium amalgam. 

Copper Amalgam 

The peculiar properties of copper amal- 
gam give it quite an important place in 
several branches of industry. It crystal- 
lizes very easily, and becomes so hard 
that it can be polished like gold. It can 
also be hammered or rolled, and stamped, 
and retains its luster for a -long time 
in the air, unless the air contains hydro- 
gen sulphide, in which case it quickly 
tarnishes and turns black. If placed in 
boiling water it becomes soft, and so 
pliable that it can be shaped into the most 



[174] 



(Gold Amalgam) 



(Silver Amalgam) 



delicate forms, hardening again in a few 
hours to a very fine-grained, quite 
malleable mass. It w^as formerly recom- 
mended for filling teeth, but is no longer 
used for that purpose, as there are other 
amalgams equally suitable, and free from 
copper, which has a poisonous efEect. An 
important use of copper amalgam is lu 
cementing metals ; it is only necessary i.o 
apply it to the metals, which must be 
bright, and previously heated to from 
176 to 194° F., and press them together; 
they will be joined firmly. 

There are many methods of preparing 
copper amalgam, but the simplest and 
easiest is as follows : Place strips of 
zinc in a solution of copper sulphate, anl 
shake vigorously. The copper thus ob- 
tained, in the form of a delicate powder, 
is washed and treated, while still moist, 
in a rubbing-dish, with a solution of 
mercurous nitrate. Hot water is then 
poured over the copper, the dish kept 
warm, and the mercury added. The con- 
tents of the dish are kneaded with a 
pestle until the powdery copper has com- 
bined with the mercury to a plastic mass, 
which will become the more homogeueuus 
the longer the kneading is continued. The 
best proportions are 3 parts of copper 
to 7 parts of mercury. 

"When the amalgam has reached the 
proper consistency the water is poured 
off, and the soft mass molded into the 
form in which it is to remain. For the 
purpose of cementing, it has been found 
best to roll it into small cylinders, about 
Vs in. in diameter and % to 1% in. long. 
To take impressions with this amalgam, 
of casts made from wood carvings, the 
amalgam is rolled out, while warm, into 
a thin sheet, and pressed firmly upon 
the cast, also warmed. After the amal- 
gam has hardened, the thin sheet can be 
made stronger by pouring over it melted 
type metal. 

Gold Amalgam 

Gold belongs among these metals which 
combine easily with mercury, and a gold 
amalgam can be prepared by direct union 
of the two metals. If gold is used which 
has been obtained by the chemical process 
of reducing gold salts, it must be remem- 
bered that this, being in a finely divided 
state, will not dissolve easily in the mer- 
cury, for the reason that the fine powder 
will remain floating upon the surface. 
Gold, however, which has been reduced 
in the form of somewhat larger crystals, 
will dissolve in a comparatively short 
time. These small gold crystals can easily 
be obtained by dissolving gold chloride iu 
amyl alcohol and heating the solution to 



the boiling point, whereby the gold will 
be separated in the form of small, lus- 
trous crystals. 

Iron Amalgam 

Iron is one of the metals which does 
not combine easily with mercury, and 
iron amalgam, as such, is not used for 
plating purposes. 

Lead Amalgams 

These meet with an interesting em- 
ployment for the autogenous soldering of 
lead. After the surfaces to be soldered 
have been well cleaned a layer of lead 
amalgam is applied. It is afterward suf- 
ficient to pass along the line of junction 
a soldering iron heated to redness, in 
order that the heat should cause the 
volatilization of the quicksilver, and that 
the lead, liberated in a state of fine 
division, should be melted and cause the 
adherence of the two surfaces. The only 
precaution necessary is to avoid breathing 
thf mercurial vapor, which is quite 
poisonous. 

Silver Amalgam 

The properties of silver amalgam are 
similar in most respects to those of gold 
amalgam, but it has a still stronger ten- 
dency to crystallize. Pure silver must be 
used in its preparation, as a content of 
copper would have the same detrimental 
effect upon the character of the amalgam 
as in the case of gold amalgam. The 
easiest method of making: silver amalgam 
is by the use of silver in powdered form, 
obtained by reducing silver solutions. If 
a solution of nitrate of silver is put into 
a bottle with 10 or 15 parts of water, 
and a few small pieces of sheet zinc, 
and the mixture shaken vigorously for a 
few minutes, the silver will separate in 
the form of a very fine blackish-gra> 
powder, which only needs washing and 
drying to be ready for the preparation of 
amalgam. This powder can be directly 
dissolved in the mercury, but it takes 
some time. A quicker method is to heat 
the mercury nearly to the boiling point 
in a crucible, and throw in the powdered 
silver, stirring vigorously with an iron 
rod. Silver amalgam can also be pre- 
pared without heat. In this method a 
concentrated solution of nitrate of silver 
(1 part of the nitrate in 3 parts oi 
distilled water) is mixed with 4 times 
the quantity of mercury, and the liquids 
combined by shaking. The silver will be 
reduced from the nitrate by the mercury, 
and dissolve in the excess of it. If the 
amalgam is to be used for fire silvering, 
the small quantity of nitrate of mercury 



[175] 



( Tin Amalgam ) 



(Zinc Amalgam) 



adhering to it is of no consequence, and 
it can be used at once. 

Tin Amalgam 

This amalgam was formerly of im- 
portance for making mirrofs, but at tne 
present day mirrors coated with a thin 
layer of silver are more beautiful and 
cheaper than those prepared with amal- 
gam. Tin has a great affinity for mer- 
cury, which makes the preparation of the 
amalgam easy. It is only necessary to 
rub the two together, the tin being best 
used in the form of foil or shavings. The 
amalgam will harden in a shorter or 
longer time, according to the quantity of 
mercury used. 



Zinc Amalgam 

Zinc amalgamates readily with mer- 
cury, it being only necessary to heat the 
latter to the boiling point and add the 
zinc in small pieces. Zinc amalgam is 
not employed directly, but is largely used 
in the zinc anodes of galvanic batteries. 
For this purpose it is prepared upon the 
zinc plate itself, by heating the latter 
to about 482 to 500° F., and dipping it 
at once into mercury, after first coating 
it quickly and uniformly with a solution 
of chloride of zinc and ammonia, applied 
with a brush. Amalgamation takes place 
immediately, and the plates thus treated 
give currents of greater strength and con- 
stancy than ordinary zinc plates. 



I Jl';'Q J 



CHAPTER II. 



CEMENTS, GLUES, PASTES, ETC. 



GENERAL SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 



CEMENTS PROPER 
ACID-PROOF 
AQUARIUM 
CASEIN 
CELLULOID 
GLASS, ETC. 
LEATHER 
MECHANICS' 
METALS 

METALS TO GLASS, ETC. 
METALS TO LEATHER, ETC. 



CEMENTS PROPER— Continued 
RUBBER 

WOOD TO WOOD 
MINOR USES 

OTHER ADHESIVES 
GLUE 
MUCILAGE 
PASTES 
PUTTY 
SPECIAL ADHESIVES 



The importance of cements, both in the 
workshop and in the household, is uni- 
versally acknowledged, but the frequency 
of failures in the use of them shows that 
no matter how good the receipt, or how 
carefully compounded, if the cement is 
carelessly applied or allowed an in- 
suflacient time for setting, bad results are 
sure to follow. By observing the follow- 
ing simple rules much time and money 
can be saved : 

1. — See that the surfaces are clean. 
Dirt and grease are sure to breed trouble. 
Wash the article with lye (caustic pot- 
ash), or if from the nature of the sub- 
stance lye cannot be used, with carbon 
bisulphide. The hands are very liable 
to be greasy, and the edges to be joined 
should not be touched by them. If the 
substances to be united have been joined 
before, all traces of the former cement 
must be removed. 

2. — Bring the cement into intimate con- 
tact with the surfaces to be united. This 
is best done by heating the pieces to be 
joined in those cases where the cement 
is melted by heat, as in using rosin, shel- 
lac, marine glue, etc. This heating is 
of great importance and is usually 
neglected, to the detriment of the strengtb 
of the joint. This fact is understood by 
cement peddlers, and some of the really 
marvelous feats performed by them are 
entirely owing to this cause. Where solu- 
tions are used the cement must be well 
rubbed into the surfaces, either with a 



soft brush (as in the case of porcelain 
or glass) or by rubbing the two surfaces 
together (as in making a glue joint be- 
tween two pieces of wood). 

3. — As little cement as possible should 
be allowed to remain between the united 
surfaces. To secure this the cement 
should be as liquid as possible (thor- 
oughly melted if used with heat), and 
the surfaces should be pressed closely 
into contact (by screws, weights, wedges 
or cords) until the cement has hardened. 
These mechanical aids also help to dis- 
place the thin film of air which sticks 
closely to the substance. The ordinary 
carpenter's hand screw is recommended 
for use with cements. It is in use by 
all cabinet makers and carpenters for 
gluing. A string tightly bound about the 
object answers the same purpose and is 
good if tight. All excess should be re- 
moved from the edges while the cement 
is still liquid. Plenty of time should be 
allowed for the cement to dry or harden, 
and this is particularly the case in oil 
cements, such as copal varnish, boiled oil, 
white lead, etc. When 2 surfaces, each 
% in. across, are joined by means of a 
layer of white lead placed between them, 
6 months may elapse before the cement 
in the middle of the joint has become 
hard. In such cases a few days or weeks 
are of no account ; at the end of a month 
the joint will be weak and easily 
separated, while at the end of 2 or 3 
years it may be so firm that the material 
will part anywhere else than at the joint. 



[177] 



(Acid-Proof Cements) 



(Casein Cements) 



Hence when the article is to be used 
immediately the only safe cements are 
those which are liquified by heat and 
which become hard when cold. A joint 
made with marine glue is firm an hour 
after it has been made. Next to cements 
that are liquified by heat are those which 
consist of substances dissolved in water 
or alcohol. A glue joint sets firmly in 
24 hours; a joint made with shellac 
varnish becomes dry in 2 or 3 days. Oil 
cements, which do not dry by evapora- 
tion, but harden by oxidation (boiled 
oil, white lead, red lead, etc.), are the 
slowest of all. 

4. — Coloring matters may be introduced 
into cements with good effect. But care 
should be used not to mix anything with 
the cement which will set up any chemical 
action and so weaken the joint. 

5. — Select the right recipe from the 
following very full list of cements, which 
contains all which are of value and many 
which are published for the first time. 
A good rubber cement, shellac varnish 
and a good gutta percha cement as the 
following should be on every amateur's 
work table. 

A Strong and Handy Cement. — One of 
the strongest cements, and very readily 
made, is obtained when equal quantities 
of gutta percha and shellac are melted 
together and well stirred. This is best 
done in an iron capsule placed on a 
sand bath and heated either over a ^as 
furnace or on the top of a stove. It is a 
combination possessing both hardness anu 
toughness-dualities that make it particu- 
larly desirable in mending crockery. 
"When this cement is used, the articles to 
be mended should be warmed to about 
the melting point of the mixture, and then 
retained in proper position until cool, 
when they are ready for use. 

ACID-PROOF CEMENTS 
1. — ^Acid-proof cements are used for 
cementing troughs or other objects in- 
tended to hold acid. 

2. — For Galvanoplasty. — An oaken 
trough, close made, will last from 12 to 
15 years if coated with Burgundy pitcn, 
1,500 grams ; old gutta percha in shreds, 
250 grams ; pounded pumice, 750 grams. 
Melt the gutta percha, mix with the 
pumice and add the pitch. A hot iron 
passed over the surface smooths it and 
assists adhesion. The box resists sul- 
phate of copper baths, but not cyanide. 
3.— Melt together pitch, 1^ part ; rosin, 
1 part, and plaster of pans (perfectly 
dry), 1 part. 

[1' 



AQUAHIUM CEMENTS 
1. — ^Whiting, 6 parts ; plaster of paris, 
8 parts; white beach sand, 3 parts; 
litharge, 3 parts; powdered rosin, 1 papt. 
Mix thoroughly and make into a putty 
with the best coach varnish. Leave the 
glass a week before disturbing. 

2. — Linseed oil, 3 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; rosin, 
1 lb. ; melt together over a gentle fire. 
If too much oil is used, the cement will 
run down the angles of the aquarium ; to 
obviate this it should be tested before 
using by allowing a small quantity to 
cool under water ; if not found sufficiently 
firm, allow it to simmer longer or add 
more tar and rosin. The cement should 
be poured in the corners of the aquarium 
while warm (not hot). This cement is 
pliable and is not poisonous. 

Marble, To Cement 

1. — Melt together 8 parts of rosin and | 
1 of wax ; when melted, stir in 4 or 

5 parts of plaster of paris. The pieces 
to be joined should be made hot. 

2. — Procure a small piece of quick- 
lime fresh from a nei/ly burnt kiln, slake 
with the white of an egg, wash the frac- 
tured parts quite clean, and apply. 

3. — Soak plaster of paris in a saturated 
solution of alum, bake in an oven, reduce 
it to a powder, mix with water, and 
apply ; it sets like granite. 

4. — Mix 12 parts of Portland cement, 

6 parts of slaked lime, 6 parts of fine 
sand and 1 part of infusorial earth, and 
make up into a thick paste with silicate 
of soda. The object to be cemented 
does not require to be heated. It sets 
in 24 hours, and the fracture cannot be 
readily found. 

Keene's Marble Cement. — 'Baked gyp- 
sum or plaster of paris, steeped in a 
saturated solution of alum, and then re- 
calcined and reduced to powder. For 
use, mix up with water the same as 
plaster of paris. This important cement 
will not stand the weather, but is ad- 
mirably adapted for applying as a stucco. 

CASEIN CEMENTS 

1. — Casein is used for a number oi 
cements which are useful, and, if pre- 
pared from pure casein, are very perma- 
nent. The cements of casein with lime 
are particularly recommended. Pure 
casein is prepared in the following way: 
Skim the milk carefully until there is ; 
not a trace of cream. Let it stand in 
a warm place until it curdles. Tb^n pour 
it through a^ paper filter. Wash the 
casein remaining on the filter with rain 
water until the water shows no trace of 
, free acid. Tie the casein in a cloth, and 

78] 



(Cements for Glass) 



(Cap Cements) 



boil in water to remove all fat. Spread 
on blotting paper, and dry in a moderately 
warm place. It will shrivel up in a 
hornlike mass. 

2. — A solution of casein in a comcen- 
trated aqueous solution of borax, made 
with cold water, makes a very tenacious 
cement. 

3. — Casein, in powder, 5 av. oz. ; quick- 
lime, in powder, 1 av. oz. ; camphor, in 
powder, 120 grams. Mix. This powder 
to be made into a cream with suflBcient 
water before using. 

4. — Casein, in powder, 2 av. oz. ; borax, 
in powder, 1 av. oz. Mix. Made into 
a paste with water when required. 

CELLULOID 

1. — Make a mixture composed -^f 3 
parts of alcohol and 4 parts of ether ; 
keep in a well corked bottle, and when 
celluloid articles are to be mended, paint 
the broken surfaces over with the alcohol 
and ether mixture until the surfaces 
soften ; then press together and bind, and 
allow to dry for at least 24 hours. 

2. — Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor 
in 4 parts of alcohol ; dissolve an equal 
weight of shellac in such strong cam- 
phor solution. The cement is applied 
warm, and the parts united must not be 
disturbed until the cement is hard. 

GLASS, POP.CELAIN, CHOCKERT, 
CEMENTS 

1. — ^An excellent cement for glass or 
earthenware is made as follows : Gum 
shellac, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine, i 
part ; fuse together in an iron pot, and 
when partially cool form into sticks. 
When wanted for use, melt near a gentle 
heat. Care must be taken while fusing 
the materials to keep the vessel closed, 
as the turpentine is very inflammable. 
Or : Litharge, 2 parts ; unslaked lime and 
flint glass, of each, 1 part ; pulverize 
separately, and mix. To use it, wet with 
old drying oil. 

2. — Strong gum arable solution, 8 1-3 
oz., to which a solution of 30 gr. sulphate 
of aluminum, dissolved in 2-3 oz. of water, 
is added. 

3. — ^Stick Cement. — a. — Melt together, 
sulphur, 6 parts ; white Burgundy pitch, 
4 parts ; shellac, 1 part ; elemi, 2 parts ; 
mastic, 2 parts ; powdered kaolin, passed 
through a very fine sieve, 6 parts. Before 
applying, the surfaces to be joined must 
be carefully heated. 

b. — Best and purest gum arable is put 
into a small quantity of water, and left 
till next day, when it is of the con 
sistency of treacle. Calomel (mercurous 
chloride or subchloride of mercury, 



poison) is then added to make a stickj 
mass, and well mixed on a glass plate 
with a spatula. No more is to be made 
than that required for immediate use. 
The cement hardens in a few hours, but 
it is better to leave it for a day or 
two. 

Cla^s, Cements for 

1. — -India rubber, 10 parts ; chloroform, 
6 parts ; mastic, 2 parts. This size is 
also good for making glass adhere to 
other hard surfaces. 

2. — Delicate glassware, such as Vene- 
tian glass, can be cemented with best 
tish glue, applied hot and afterward tied 
well. 

3. — Best gelatine, 100 parts, dissolved 
by warming in 150 parts of 96% acetic 
acid ; then add 5 parts of ammonium bi- 
chromate in fine powder. Keep away 
from light. When drying mended parts, 
expose directly to the sun. 

Special Purposes 

1. — Cap Cements. — These are so named 
because they are used to fix on parts of 
electrical or other apparatus to glass. 
They are very useful for many purposes, 
and should find a place in every labora- 
tory and amateur's workshop, a. — Glue, 
best white, 11 oz, ; white curd soap, 1 
oz. ; plaster of paris, Syi lb. ; water, i/^ 
gal._ The glue is put to soak overnight 
in just enough of the water to well cover 
it. In the morning (or when properly 
softened) it is dissolved, together with 
the soap, in the rest of the water, pre- 
viously heated to boiling. When a quan- 
tity of the cement is required, a sufficient 
quantity of the plaster of paris is mixed 
up quickly with enough of the warm 
liquid to form a smooth thin paste. This 
paste must be used at once, as it soon 
sets or hardens. When hardened it is 
impervious to coal oil. 

b. — (Equal weights of red lead and white 
lead used for chemical and electrical pur- 
poses. For cementing glass tubes, necks 
of balloons, etc., into metal mountings. 
This is preferable to white lead alone, 
and may be depended on for temperature 
up to 212°. 

2. — Chemical Cement. — a. — ^A good 
cement for chemical and electrical appara- 
tus may be prepared by mixing 5 lb. of 
rosin» 1 lb. of wax, 1 lb. of red ocher 
and 2 oz, of plaster of paris, and melting 
the whole with moderate heat. 

^•7~Yellow wax, 4 parts; common tur- 
pentine, 2 parts; Venetian red (well 
dried), 1 part; melted together. Used 
as a temporary stopping or lute for the 
ends or joints of tubes which are not 
exposed to much heat, as in alkalimetry. 



[179] 



(L<eather Cements) 



(Leather Cements) 



3. — Enamel and Porcelain Letters to 
Glass. — a. — Copal varnish, 15 parts ; dry- 
ing oil, 5 parts ; turpentine, 2 parts ; 
liquified marine glue, 5 parts; melt in a 
water bath, and add slaked lime, 10 
parts. 

b. — Rosin, 22 parts; burnt umber, 4 
parts; calcined plaster, 2 parts; boiled 
oil, 1 part. 

4. — Lenses. — In those of foreign 
make and arborescent appearance is oc- 
casionally to be seen between the elemen- 
tary parts of which the lens is com- 
posed. This arises from the drying or 
shrinking of the balsam with which it is 
cemented. To remedy this unset the lens, 
place it in warm water, which may be 
still further heated till the balsam softens, 
separate the components, and clean with 
ether, benzole or turpentine. Next place 
a drop of pure balsam on the center of 
the concave surface and gently press the 
convex one down upon it until the balsam 
spreads and oozes out at the edges. Then 
apply a gentle heat until the balsam is 
found to have been hardened. 

LEATHER CEMENTS 
1. — A good cement is gutta percha dis- 
solved in bisulphide of carbon until it is 
of the thickness of molasses ; the parts 
to be cemented must first be well thinned 
down, then pour a small quantity of the 
cement on the parts to be cemented, 
spreading it well so as to fill the pores 
of the leather ; warm the parts over a 
source of heat for about % minute, apply 
them quickly together and press hard. 
The bottle containing the cement should 
be tightly corked and kept in a cool 
place. 

2. — This is made by mixing 10 parts 
of bisulphide of carbon with 1 part of 
oil of turpentine and then adding enough 
gutta percha, cut into small pieces, to 
make a tough, thickly flowing liquid. One 
essential prerequisite to a thoroiit^h union 
of the parts consists in freedom of the 
surfaces to be joined from grease. This 
may be insured by laying a cloth upon 
the part to be joined and applying a 
hot iron for a time. The cement is then 
applied to both pieces, the surfaces 
brought in contact and pressure applied 
till the joint is dry. 

3. — This glue, though rather complex 
in composition, gives good results. Eight 
oz. of rye whisky are diluted with 8 oz. 
of water, and the mixture is made into 
a paste with 2 oz. of starch, % of an 
oz. of good glue are dissolved in the 
SI me amount of water, and equal amount 
of turpentine is added, and the mixture 
and the paste are combined. 



4. — Strong glue, 50 parts; water, suf 
ficient quantity ; turpentine, 2 parts ; 
starch paste, 100 parts. Dissolve the glue 
over the fire in the water; add the tur- 
pentine, stir up well and mix with the 
starch paste while hot. 

5. — Amalgamate by heat gutta percha, 
100 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 80 oz. ; shel- 
lac, 8 oz. ; India rubber, 2 oz. ; liquid 
storax, 10 oz. 

6. — Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; India rubber, 
4 oz. ; pitch, 2 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; linseed 
oil, 2 oz., melted together ; it hardens 
by keeping and needs remelting for use. 

7. — Best glue, 2 lb. ; water, 3 pt. Dis- 
solve by the aid of heat, and when the 
solution has become thick add Venice tur- 
pentine, Sl4 oz. ; liquified carbolic acid, 
80 min. On cooling this cement congeals 
to a gelatinous mass, which is then to 
be cut in strips and spread upon tin 
plates to dry. For use the t^ement is 
melted with the addition of a little 
vinegar and applied to the freshly cut 
leather and the points pressed between 
warm iron plates for 15 minutes. 

8. — 'Gutta percha, 100 parts ; black 
pitch or asphaltum, 100 parts ; oil of 
turpentine, 15 parts. Mix. It is used 
hot. 

9. — Belting. — Take of common glue and 
American isinglass, equal parts ; place 
them in a boiler and add water suf 
ficient to just cover the whole. Let it 
soak 10 hours, then bring the whole to 
a boiling heat, and add pure tannin un- 
til the whole becomes ropy or appears 
like the white of eggs. Apply it warm. 
Buff the grain off the leather where it 
is to be cemented, rub the joint surfaces 
solidly together, let it dry a few hours 
and it is ready for practical use, and if 
properly put together it v/ill not need 
riveting, as the cement is nearly all of the 
same nature as the leather itself. 

10. — Shoemakers' Cement. — a. — Dis- 
solve gutta percha in chloroform to tb"* 
consistency of honey. Heat the surfaces 
to which it is to be applied and press 
together. 

b. — An elastic cement for patchinsr 
shoes (invisible patches), attaching 
soles that have been "started,'' etc. Dis- 
solve 10 parts of gutta percha in 100 
parts of benzol, pour the solution into 
100 parts of linseed oil varnish and stir 
until a homogeneous mixture is obtained. 
To make a firm and nicely appearing job 
the patch should be chamfered down at 
the edges with a keen knife and the shoe 
leather trimm^^vl away around the break 
so as to present a clean, fresh surface to 
the cement. 



[380] 



(Metal Cements) 



(Cements for Iron) 



MECHANIC'S CEMENTS 

Turner's Cement. — 1. — Rosin, i/^ oz. ; 
pitch, y^ oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz ; melted to- 
gether, sufficient fine brick 3>ust added to 
produce desired consistency, 

2. — Rosin, 2 lb. ; Burgundy pitch, 2 
lb. ; dried whiting, 2 lb. ; yellow wax, 2 
oz. ; melted and mixed together. 

3. — 'Black rosin, i/^ lb. ; yellow wax, 1 
oz. ; melted together and poured inro a 
tin canister. 

4. — Melt 1 lb. of rosin in a pan over 
the fire, and, when melted, add y^ lb. 
of pitch. While these are boiling add 
brick dust until, by dropping a little on 
a cold stone, you think it hard enough. 
In winter it may be necessary to add a 
little tallow. By means of this cement a 
piece of wood may be fastened to the 
chuck, which will hold when cool ; and 
when the work is finished it may be re- 
moved by a smart stroke with the tool. 
Any traces of the cement may be re- 
moved from the work by means of 
benzine. 

IVIETALS 

1. — Melt over a water bath copal 
varnish, 30 parts ; drying oil, 10 parts ; 
turpentine, 6 parts; when melted add :Z0 
parts slaked lime. 

2. — Boiled linseed oil, 6 parts ; copal, 
6 parts ; litharge, 2 parts ; powdered 
white lead, 1 part. 

3. — Slaked lime, 1 part; brick dust, 2 
parts; boiled lins.ed oil, 3 parts. Make 
a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the 
ingredients. 

4. — Glycerine and litharge, stirred to a 
paste, harden rapidly and make a toler- 
able cement for iron upon iron, for two 
stone surfaces and especially for fasten- 
ing iron in stone. This cement is in- 
soluble and is not acted upon by strong 
acids. 

Brass Joints 

TJnvulcanized rubber, 2 parts; gutta 
percha, 1 part; brass filings, 10 parts. 
Melt by the aid of heat. 

Brass to Tin 

To 20 parts of fine, reduced copper add 
sufficient sulphuric acid to make a stiff 
paste. To this add 70 parts of metallic 
mercury and work in, at the same time 
applying heat until the mass assumes a 
wax-like consistency. Warm or heat the 
plates to be united to about the same 
temperature, apply the mixture, hot, to 
each, then press together and let cool. 

Copper to Sandstone 

Take white lead, 30 parts* litharge, 3 
parts; bole, 3 parts, and broken glass, 



3 parts, and rub up with 2 parts linseed 
oil varnish. 

Coppersmiths' Cement 

Powdered quicklime mixed with bul- 
lock's blood ; use at once. 

Iron 

1. — Graphite, 50 lb.; whiting, 15 lb.; 
litharge, 15 lb. Make to a paste with 
boiled oil. 

2. — Make a putty of white lead and 
asbestos. 

3. — Make a paste of litharge and glyc- 
erine. Red lead may be added. This 
also does for stone. 

4. — iMake iron filings to a paste with 
water glass. 

5. — 'Sal ammoniac, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 2 
oz. ; iron filings, 32 oz. Make as much 
as is to be used at once to a paste with 
a little water. This remark applies to 
both the following dry recipes : 

6. — Mix iron filings, ISO oz. ; lime, 45 
oz. ; salt, 8 oz. 

7. — Mix iron filings, 140 oz. ; hydraulic 
lime, 20 oz. ; sand, 25 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 
3 oz. 

Either of these last two mixtures is 
made into a paste with strong vinegar 
just before use. 

Steam, Hot Water and Hot Air Boil- 
ers and Pipes. — 1. — Take of coarsely pow- 
dered iron borings, 5 lb. : powdered sal 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz., and 
water sufficient to moisten it. This com- 
position hardens rapidly, but if time can 
be allowed it sets more firmly without 
the sulphur. It must be used as &uuu 
as mixed and rammed tightly into the 
joint. 

2. — 'Take sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sub- 
limed sulphur, 1 oz. ; cast iron filings or 
fine turnings, 1 lb. Mix in a mortar and 
keep the powder dry. When it is to be 
used mix it with 20 times its weight of 
clean iron turnings, or filings, and grl^d 
the whole in a mortar; then wet it with 
Avater until it becomes of convenient con- 
sistency, when it is to be applied to the 
joint. After a time it becomes as hard 
and strong as any part of the metal. 

3- — ^For stopping holes in castings o*. 
covering scars a useful cement inay, it 
is said, be made of equal parts of gum 
arable, plaster of paris and :'ron filings, 
and if a little finely pulverized white 
glass be added to the mixture it will make 
it still harder. This mixture forms a 
very hard cement that will resist the ac- 
tion of fire and water. It should be 
kept in its dry state and mixed with a 
little water when wanted for use. 

4. — Hot Water Cistern. — To 4 or 5 
parts clay, dried and pulverized, add 2 



risn 



(Linseed Oil Cement) 



(Metal to Glass, etc.) 



parts of fine iron filings free from oxide ; 
peroxide of manganese, 1 part ; sea salt, 
% part, and borax, % part. Thoroughly 
incorporate these in as fine a state as 
possible, reduce them to a thick paste 
with water and use immediately. It 
should then be exposed to heat, gradually 
increasing to almost a white heat. This 
cement resists heat and boiling water. 

5. — 'Iron Putty. — The iron putty used 
for steam joints is made by mixin? dry 
2 parts of a good metallic paint ; litharge, 
1 part ; fine iron borings, sifted, 3 parts, 
or for close joints, iron filings. Add 
boiled linseed oil and mix to the con- 
sistency of stiff putty. 

6. — Leaks in Boilers. — Emergencies 
often arise when a leak must be stopped 
in a boiler while still under fire. The 
following preparation has been found 
serviceable : Mix well together powdered 
graphite, 6 parts ; slaked lime, 3 parts ; 
heavy spar (barytes), 8 parts, and thick 
linseed oil varnish, 8 parts, and apply 
in the ordinary way to the spots. 

7. — Red Lead made into p paste with 
boiled linseed oil is also usea for cement- 
ing the joints of metal pipes. 

8. — Rust Cement. — .Make a stiff paste 
with sal ammoniac, 2 parts ; iron borings, 
35 parts ; :ulphur and water, 1 part, and 
drive it into the joint with a chisel, or 
to 2 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 pan 
flowers of sulphur add ^ ttarts of iron 
chips ana mix the whole witn waxe», ^^ 
which 1-6 part vinegar or a little sul- 
phuric acid is added. Another cement is 
made by mixing 100 parts of bright iron 
filings or fine chips or borings with 1 
part powdered sal ammoniac and moist- 
ening with urine ; when thus prepared, 
force into the joint. It will prove service- 
-abie under the action of fire. 

Isinglass 

Isinglass solution, 100 parts, and 
nitric acid, 1 part. Stir the nitric acid 
evenly in a very thick isinglass solution 
and paint the metallic surfaces with this 
liquid. The surfaces must be firmly 
pressed together. The object of the nitric 
acid is to make the surfaces rough by 
corrosion ; its use, however, is attended 
with the disadvantage that it hinders the 
drying of the cement. It is therefore 
necessary to expose the cemented metallic 
surfaces to a higher temperature for a 
time to hasten the drying. 

Linseed Oil 

Linseed oil and well slaked lime are 
made into a paste. Great pressure must 
be used. 



Plumber's Cement 

Black rosin, 1 part; brick dust, 2 
parts; well incorporated by a melting 
heat. 

METALS TO GLASS, MARBLE, POR- 
CELAIN, STONE, ETC. 

1. — One of the best cements for unit- 
ing glass to other substances consists of 
a mixture of gum and calomel. Its ad- 
hesive power is something marvelous. It 
is prepared by putting the very best and 
purest gum arable into a small quantity 
of water and leaving it till next day, 
when it should be of the consistency of 
treacle. Calomel (mercurous chloride br 
subchloride of mercury) is then added in 
suitable quantity, enough to make a 
sticky mass, being well mixed on a glass 
plate with a spatula. No more is to be 
made than that required for immediate 
use. The cement hardens in a few hours, 
but it is wiser to leave it to itself for a 
day or two. To insure success it is neces- 
sary to use only the very best gum ; in- 
ferior sorts are absolutely useless. 

2. — iOne lb. of shellac, dissolved in 1 
pt. of strong methylated spirit, to which 
is to be added 1-20 part of a solution 
of India rubber in carbon bisulphide. 

3. — Take 2 oz, of a thick solution of 
glue and mix with 1 oz. of linseed oil 
varnish or 1 oz. of Venice turpentine. 
Boil together, agitating until the mixture 
becomes as intimate as possible. The 
pieces cemented should be clamped to- 
gether for a space of 48 to 60 hours. 

4. — Petroleum Cement. — a. — Dissolve 
5 parts of shellac and 1 part of turpen- 
tine in 15 parts of petroleum. This 
cement is fairly elastic. 

b. — A cement particularly adapted for 
attaching the brasswork to petroleum 
lamps is made by Puscher by boiling .3 
parts rosin with 1 part of caustic soda 
and 5 parts of water. The composition 
is then mixed with half its weight of 
plaster of paris and sets firmly in % to 
% of an hour. It is of great adhesive 
power and not permeable to petroleum, 
a low conductor of heat and but super- 
ficially attacked by hot water. Zinc 
white, white lead or precipitated chalk 
may be substituted for plaster, but 
hardens more slowly. 

Brass to Glass 

1. — Knead rosin soap with % the 
quantity of plaster of paris. 

2. — (Substitute zinc white for the plas- 
ter of paris or slaked lime, which causes 
it to harden much slower. 

3. — 'Boil together caustic soda, 1 part ; 
rosin, 3 parts; gypsum, 3 parts, and 



[182] 



(Iron to Stone) 



(Metals to Leather) 



water, 5 parts. The cement made in this 
way hardens in about % hour, hence 
it must be applied quickly. During 
the preparation it should be stirred con- 
stantly. Remember that all the ingredi- 
ents used must be in a finely powdered 

4.— Fresh beaten blood, 13 parts; 
slaked lime, 4 parts, and a little alum. 
This should be used immediately ana 
applied with a brush. One or two coats 
will render any cloth waterproof. 

Iron Articles in Stone 

1. — Plaster of paris, 14 parts ; iron fil- 
ings, 2 parts. Mix and stir into a paste 
with water. This cement dries quickly. 

2. — Mix into a paste with water 3 
lb. plaster of paris and 1 lb. iron filings. 

3. — iBrick Dust ^ Cement. — A _ nt-w 
cement for securing iron to stone is de- 
scribed in some of the foreign papers. 
The cement is made by melting rosin and 
stirring in brick dust, which must be 
finely ground and sifted until a sort of 
putty is formed, which, however, runs 
easily while hot. In using, the iron is 
set into the hole in the stone preparea 
to receive it, and the melted putty poured 
in until the space is filled ; then, if de- 
sired, bits of brick, previously warmed, 
may be pushed into the mass and a little 
of the cement thereby saved. As soon 
as the whole is cool the iron will be 
firmly held to the stone and the cement 
is quite durable and uninjured by the 
weather, while, unlike lead and sulphur, 
it has no injurious effect on the iron. 

Metal Letters on Glass, Marble, 
Wood, etc. 

1. — Copal varnish, 30 parts ; linseed 
oil varnish, 10 parts ; oil of turpentine, 
10 parts ; glue, 10 parts. Place the mix- 
ture in a water bath, to dissolve the 
glue, then add 20 parts slaked lime. 

2. — Rosin, 4 to 5 parts ; beeswax, 1 
part ; the whole melted together. A little 
powdered plaster is often added. 

3. — Fine litharge, 2 parts ; white lead, 
1 part ; copal, 1 part ; boiled linseed oil, 
3 parts ; the whole is triturated together. 
Dissolve by heat. 

4. — For joining metallic surfaces where 
soldering is inconvenient recourse may 
be had to a comoosition formed in the 
following way : Pure and finely divided 
copper, such as that obtained by the re- 
duction of sulphate of copper with zinc 
clippings, 20 to 36 parts, according to 
the degree of hardness desired in the 
cement, dissolved in a sufl5icient quantity 
of sulphuric acid to make a thick paste ; 
with this is incorporated by trituration 



in a mortar, mercury, 70 parts. The 
mass ig soft, but hardens at tne end of- 
some hours. For use it is heated to 212° 
F. (100° C), and powdered in an iron 
mortar heated to 302° F. (150° C.) ; it 
then assumes the consistency of wax and 
is harder in proportion, as it contains 
more copper. 

Tiles to Iron 

Use a gutta percha cement, made by 
melting together in an iron pan 2 parts 
of common pitch and 1 part of gutta 
percha. Stir them well together until 
thoroughly incorporated and then pour 
the liquid into cold water. When cold 
it is black, solid and elastic, but it softens 
with heat, and at 100° F. is a thin fluid. 
Also try bedding in plaster of paris. 

Tin to Wood 

Melt in a thick-walled iron vessel 1 
part of yellow wax, stir in 2 parts of 
gutta percha chips to complete dissolu- 
tion and dissolve therein 2 parts of shel- 
lac and 0.1 part of boiled linseed oil. 
After the mass has cooled off pour it upon 
a somewhat moistened metal or stone 
plate ; next knead and shape into bars. 
Dry well the wooden or tin parts to be 
cemented and apply evenly the melted 
cement on the wood and tin. Press the 
articles together moderately and allow 
them to remain for 24 hours. To mart 
the tin by scouring with emery is ad- 
vantageous. The process should not be 
conducted in too cool a place, 

METALS TO LEATHiER, CLOTH, 
WOOD, ETC. 

Cloth to Metal 

1. — Cloth can be cemented to polished 
iron shafts by first painting the shafts 
with a coat of best white lead paint. 
After the paint has dried hard coat with 
Russian glue, dissolved in water acidu- 
lated with a little vinegar or acetic acid. 

2. — Starch, 20 parts ; sugar, 10 parts ; 
zinc chloride, 1 part ; water, 100 parts. 
Mix the ingredients and stir until a per- 
fectly smooth liquid results entirely free 
from lumps, then warm gradually until 
the liquid thickens. 

3. — Cloth on Iron Rolls. — There is 
nothing better for this purpose than good 
glue, to which has been added tannin un- 
til the glue becomes ropy. 

Cork to Metal 

In fastening cork to iron and brass, 
even when these ure lacquered, a good 
sealing wax containing shellac will b<i 
found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax 
prepared with rosin is not suitableo The 



[183] 



(Leather to Metal) 



(Rubber Cements) 



cork surface is painted with the melted 
sealing wax. The surface of the metal 
is heated with a spirit flame entirely 
free from soot until the sealing wax 
melts when pressed upon the metallic 
surface. The wax is held in the flame 
until it burns, and it is then applied to 
the hot surface of the metal. The cork 
surface painted with sealing wax is now 
held in the flame, and as soon as the 
wax begins to melt the cork is pressed 
firmly on the metallic surface bearing 
the wax. 

Leather to Metal 

1. — Melt together equal parts asphalt 
and gutta percha and apply hot under 
a press. 

2, — Leather to Iron. — Paint the iron 
with some kind of lead color, say white 
lead and lampblack. When dry cover 
with a cement made as follows : Take 
1 oz. of the best glue, soak it in cold 
water till soft, then dissolve it in 1% 
fl. oz. vinegar with a moderate beat, 
then add 1-3 of the bulk of white pine 
turpentine, thoroughly mix and by means 
of the vinegar make it of the proper 
consistency to spread with a brush and 
apply it while hot ; draw the leather 
on quickly and press it tightly in place. 
If a pulley, draw the leather round 
tightly, lap and clamp. 
. 3. — ^Leather to Iron Pulleys, — .Cut your 
leather roughly to shape, allowing about 
1 in. per 12 in. in the width of the 
pulley. Then soak your leather in waier 
until it is wet through. Now stretch it 
well in the direction of the circumference 
of the pulley and cut it to exact shape 
and length. It should next be sewn up, 
butt to butt, with a shoemakers awl and' 
thread, and the leather, having been 
stretched in the direction of circum- 
ference only, will, as it gets dry, have a 
tendency to resume its former shape, 
.thereby shortening in circumference anci 
"clip" to the pulley. A shallow groove 
might be made for the stitches to sink 
down in. 

Paper to Iron Pulleys 

Scratch the face of the pulley with a 
rough file thoroughly, so that there are 
no bright or smooth places. Swab the 
surface with a solution of nitric acid, 1 
part; water, 4 parts (for 15 minutes) ; 
then wash with boiling hot water. Hav- 
ing prepared a pot of the best tough 
glue, stir into the glue i^ oz. of a solu- 
tion of strong tannic acid, oak bark or 
gallnuts, as convenient to obtain, to a 
quart of thick glue; stir quickly wnile 
hot and apply to the paper or pulley 



as convenient ; draw the paper as tightly 
as possible to the pulley, overlapping as 
many folds as may be required. By a 
little management and moistening of the 
paper it will bind very hard on the pulley 
when dry and will not come off or get 
loose until it is worn out. Use strong 
hardware wrapping paper. 

Wood to Metal 

1. — Mix together carpenter's glue, 4 
parts ; Venice turpentine, 1 part. 

2. — Iron may be cemented in wood by 
dropping in the recess prepared in the 
latter a small quantity of a strong solu- 
tion of sal ammoniac. This causes the 
iron to rust, rendering it very diflBcult 
to extract. 

3. — Litharge and Glycerine Cement. — 
A cement made of very finely powdered 
oxide of lead (litharge) and concentrated 
glycerine unites wood to iron with re- 
markable efficiency. The composition is 
insoluble in most acids, is unaffected by 
the action of moderate heat, sets rapidly 
and acquires an extraordinary hardness. 

4. — Wood and Pasteboard to Metal. — 
Dissolve 50 grams of lead acetate to- 
gether with 5 grams of alum in a little 
water. Make a separate solution of 75 
grams of gum arable in 2 1. of water, 
stir in this 500 grams of flour and heat 
slowly to boiling, stirring the while. Let 
it cool somewhat and mix with it the 
solution containing the lead acetate and 
alum, stirring them well together. 

RUBBER 

Carbon bisulphide is the solvent most 
commonly employed where it is desired 
to make a solution of rubber. Chloro- 
form is also widely used for this pur- 
pose, but it is more expensive. With re- 
gard to benzine, benzol, gasoline and 
naphtha, considerable confusion exists, 
the names being loosely applied to a 
number of hydrocarbon compounds of 
petroleum derivatives of varying com- 
position. The benzine of the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia is the liquid intended in 
nearly all the published formulas for rub- 
ber solutions. This distillate of petroleum 
differs from either gasoline or naphtha 
in being more volatile and explosive. It 
is characterized by a strong odor re- 
sembling that of petroleum, but much less 
disagreeable. 

Rubber cements are very common and 
very useful, but great care should be 
taken in their preparation to guard 
against fire ; they should not be prepared 
at night, as the carbon bisulphide, naph- 
tha or chloroform is very inflammable. 
Vessels which are used to digest the 
rubber should be closed and, if possible- 



[184] 



(Rubber Cements) 



(Tire Cements) 



put out of doors. If heat is required, 
use a sand or hot-water bath ; on no ac- 
count bring near a fire. 

To repair the lacerated article, wash 
the hole over with the cement, then place 
a piece of linen dipped in it over the 
gap ; as soon as the linen adheres the 
cement is applied as thickly as required. 

1. — Caoutchouc, 1 part ; mastic, 7 
parts ; chloroform, 50 parts. Mix and let 
stand until dissolved (which will require 
several weeks). 

2. — Gutta percha, in pieces, 1 av. oz. ; 
carbon bisulphide, 8 fl. oz. ; rosin, 40 gr. 
Mix and dissolve. 

Hard Rubber 

1. — Dissolve bleached gutta percha in 
carbon bisulphide. Cement and when 
dry brush over carbon bisulphide in which 
sulphur has been dissolved. 

2. — (Equal parts of pitch and gutta 
percha are melted together and linseed 
oil is added, which contains litharge. 
Melt until all are well mixed, use no 
more of the linseed oil than necessary. 
Apply warm. 

3. — Bisulphide of carbon, 26 parts ; 
gutta percha, 2 parts ; caoutchouc, 4 parts ; 
fish glue, 1 part. Clean the surface of fis- 
sure or parts to be united very carefully 
and apply the cement. The edges of the 
rent should be kept to gether by means 
of thread and the article left to dry. At 
the end of from 24 to 36 hours the bind- 
ing thread may be removed and the ce- 
ment which may have squeezed out of 
the fissure cut away. It should be noted 
that the bisulphide of caruon is extremely 
inflammable and should be kept away from 
all exposed lights or fires. 

4. — Gutta percha, 16 parts ; caoutchouc, 
4 parts ; pitch, 2 parts ; shellac, 1 part ; 
linseed oil, 2 parts. Melt together. 

Rubber Boots and Shoes 

1. — Caoutchouc, 62 parts ; chloroform, 
250 parts; mix, and dissolve. Then take 
caoutchouc, 60 parts ; rosin, 24 parts ; 
oil of turpentine, 250 parts. Mix, and 
dissolve. When complete solution has 
taken place in both cases, mix the 2 
solutions and agitate until homogeneous. 
Use cold, and apply a portion of the 
cement to each surface to be joined. 

2. — Dissolve 1 dr. of gutta percha in 
1 oz. of bisulphide of carbon, filter 
through coarse filter paper, add 15 gr. 
of pure rubber, rub the whole smooth 
with a palette knife, taking care to do 
it quickly. If necessary, thin wrth 
bisulphide of carbon. Keep it away from 



fire or light, as it is volatile and in- 
flammable. 

Rubber Hose 

The damaged part, previously well 
cleaned and dried, is painted over with 
hot oil of turpentine. A thin sheet of 
gutta percha, softened by heat, is put 
around it so that the edges meet, and 
is pressed against the hose with a knife 
blade. The edges are finally cemented 
together by touching the seam with a 
moderately hot iron rod. 

Rubber to Wood, Glass, Metal, etc. 

1. — Soak powdered shellac in 10 times 
its weight of strong water of ammonja, 
whereby a transparent, gelatinous mass 
is produced. Melt by placing the vessel 
in hot water. When using the cement 
the surfaces of the rubber and the sub- 
stance to be cemented are coated with 
the liquid mass and then firmly pressed 
together. So soon as the ammonia has 
evaporated the rubber hardens, and the 
joints are as firm as the rubber. 

2. — Hard Rubber to Metal.— ^Make a 
thin solution of glue, and gradually add 
pulverized wood ashes till you have a 
stiff varnish. Use this cement hot. 

Rubber, to Fasten to Metal. — This may 
be done by employing a cement which 
fastens alike well to the rubber and to 
the metal or wood. Such cement is pre- 
pared by a solution of shellac in am- 
monia, best made by soaking pulverized 
gum shellac in 10 times its weight of 
strong ammonia, when a shining mass is 
obtained, which in 3 or 4 weeks will be- 
come liquid without the use of hot water. 
This softens the rubber, and becomes, 
after volatilization of the ammonia, hard, 
and impermeable to gases and fluids. 

Tire to Rim, Leather 

Carbon bisulphide, 19 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 part; gutta percha, cut in 
small pieces, q. s. Mix the turpentine 
and carbon bisulphide, and add sufficient 
gutta percha, under frequent agitations, 
or rubbing up, until a thick paste is 
obtained. To make a good joint, all fatty 
and greasy matter must be got rid of. 

Tire to Rim, Rubber 

A good, thick shellac varnish, with 
which a small amount of castor oil has 
been mixed, will be found a very excel- 
lent rim cement. The formula recom- 
mended by Edel is as follows : 

1. — Shellac, 1 lb. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; mix, 
nnd dissolve, then add castor oil, % oe. 
The castor oil prevents the cement from 
becoming hard and brittle. 



[ 185 ] 



(Wood to Wood) 



(Diamond Cement) 



2. — Melt together, at a gentle heat, 
equal parts of gutta percha and asphalt. 
Apply hot. Sometimes a small quanuty 
each of sulphur and red lead are added 
(about 1 part of each to 20 parts of 
cement). 

>WOOD TO WOOD, METAL, GLASS, 
STONE 

1. — Ash Cement.-^Warm good cabinet- 
makers' glue with water to the consist- 
ency necessary to connect wooden ob- 
jects; then add enough sifted ashes to 
bring it to the thickness of a varnish. 
Then cement should be applied to the 
surfaces of the objects to be united when 
warm, and then they should be pressed 
together tightly. After cooling and dry- 
ing, the surfaces are so strongly united 
as to require great force to separate 
them. Grinding stones fastened on wood, 
and handles to painters' stones for grind- 
ing colors, have been used for more than 
a year without exhibiting any appear- 
ance of fracture. 

2._<:;ioth or Leather to Table-tops. — 
Wheat flour, 2i^ lb. ; powdered rosin, 4 
tablespoonf uls ; powdered alum, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; heat, and mix to a stiff con- 
sistency. 

3. — Emery to Wood. — Melt together 
equal parts of shellac, white rosin and 
carbolic acid, in crystals; add the last 
after the others are melted. The effect 
of the carbolic acid is surprising. 

4. — Filling Cement for Holes in Wood, 
a. — 'Mix together rosin and turpentine, 1 
pt. each, over a water bath, and add 2 
pt. common burnt ocher. Have the work 
dry. 

b. — Put any quantity of fine sawdust 
of the same kind of wood into an earthen 
pan, and pour boiling water on it ; stir 
it well, and let it remain for a week 
or 10 days, occasionally stirring it ; then 
boil it for some time, and it will be 
of the consistency of pulp or paste ; put 
it into a coarse cloth and squeeze all 
the moisture from it. Keep for use, and, 
when wanted, mix a sufficient quantity 
of thin glue to make it into a paste ; 
rub it well into the cracks, or fill up the 
holes in your work with it. When quite 
hard and dry, clean the work off, and, 
if carefully done, you will scarcely dis- 
cern the imperfection. 

Benzine and Petroleum, Cement to Re- 
sist. — It has quite recently been dis- 
covered that gelatine mixed with glycerine 
yields a compound liquid when hot, but 
which solidifies on cooling, and forms a 
tough, elastic substance, having much the 
appearance and characteristics of India 
rubber. The two substances united form 



a mixture entirely and absolutely insolu- 
ble in petroleum or benzine, and the 
great problem of making casks impervious 
to these fluids is at once solved by brush- 
ing or painting them on the inside with 
the compound. This is also used for 
printers' rollers and for buffers of stamps, 
as benzine or petroleum will clean them 
when dirty in the most perfect manner, 
and in an incredibly short space of time. 
Water must not be used with this com- 
pound. 

Bisulphide of Carbon, Cement Imper- 
vious to. — Best quality of white glue with 
10% of molasses added. 

Cloth, Cement for. — 1. — ^TJse thin sheet 
gutta percha, which can be purchased of 
the manufacturers, especially for tailors* 
use. Place a piece of the tissue between 
the layers of cloth to be cemented, and 
press with a hot iron. This causes the 
cloth to firmly adhere on account of the 
melting of the gutta percha. 

2. — Gutta percha, 16 ; caoutchouc, 4 ; 
pitch, 2 ; shellac, 1 ; linseed oil, 2. 

Collodion Cement. — Powdered nitrate 
of potash, 1 dr. ; concentrated sulphuric 
acid, 1% dr. ; carded cotton, 5 dr. The 
nitrate of potash and the acid should be 
mixed in a porcelain capsule, gradually 
add the cotton, and stir for 5 minutes. 
Wash it thoroughly in clear water, pull 
it apart, and dry — not near the fire, as 
it is a species of guncotton. Dissolve 
in rectified sulphuric ether and a little 
alcohol. It will form a transparent, 
colorless and strong adhesive cement. 

Cutler's Cement. — '1. — For fastening 
blades of dinner knives in ivory handles. 
Consists of rosin, 4 parts ; beeswax, 1 
part; plaster of paris or brick dust, 1 
part. Fill the hole in the handle with 
the cement, heat the tang of the blade, 
crowd in, and remove superfluous cement. 
2. — Rosin, 16 oz. ; hot whiting, 16 oz. ; 
wax, 1 oz. 

3. — Pitch, 5 parts ; wood ashes, 1 part ; 
hard tallow, 1 part ; melted together, 

4. — iBlack rosin, 4 lb., melted with 1 lb. 
beeswax, and 1 lb. red-hot whiting added. 
Davy's Cement. — Davy's universal 
cement is made by melting 4 parts com- 
mon pitch with 4 parts gutta _ percha in 
an iron vessel, and mixing well. It must 
be kept fluid, under water, or in a dry, 
hard state. 

Diamond Cement. — The following for- 
mula will be found useful in repairing 
china, glass, wood, leather, etc. : Isin- 
glass, 240 gr. ; mastic, 120 gr. ; gum am- 
moniac or galbanum, 60 gr. ; alcohol, 4 
fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. Soak the isinglass 
in the water for 24 hours ; evaporate 
on a water bath to 2 fl. oz. ; then add 



[186] 



(Insulating Tapes) 



(Glue) 



2 fl. oz. of alcohol; strain; add the 
mastic, dissolved in the remaining alcohol, 
and add the ammoniac by trituration, 
avoiding loss of alcohol as much as 
possible. „ ., , ^ . 

Flexible Cement.— (Flexible cement is 
composed of white pitch and gutta 
percha, equal parts, mixed over a water 
bath. Many of the other gutta percha 
and rubber cements answer for flexible 
cements. ^ . , , - ^ r 

Gas Bags, Cement for. — Add 1 part of 
glycerine to very thick boiled glue. Fill 
the bag with air and apply while warm ; 
if too sticky, strew it with a little pow- 
dered soapstone. For large rents use 
leather well covered with glue. 

Gas Fitters' Cement. — Melt together 
4% parts rosin (by weight), 1 part bees- 
wax; then stir in 3 parts Venetian red, 
and pour into molds made of oiled paper 
or iron. ^ ^, . , . , 

Gases, To Resist. — 1. — Clay is dried, 
powdered, sifted, placed in an iron mor- 
tar, and incorporated with drying oil, 
added gradually, the whole being well 
beaten up till the mass assumes the con- 
sistency of a fine paste. It should be 
preserved under a coating of oil, to pre- 
vent it drying up. It resists the action 
of corrosive gases, but inconvenien,tly 
softens by exposure to heat. 

2. — Plaster of paris, mixed with water, 
milk, or weak glue. Stands a dull-red 
heat. 

Insulating Cement. — Shellac, 5 parts: 
rosin, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine, 1 part ; 
yellow ocher, 3 parts. 

Insulating Tapes, Cement for. — 1. — 
Pure gum rubber, dissolved in turpentine, 
with the addition of 5% of raw linseed 
oil. 

2. — Yellow pitch, 8 parts; beeswax, 2 
parts ; tallow, 1 part. 

Litharge Cement. — Litharge, 1 oz. ; 
plaster of paris, 1 oz. ; finely powdered 
rosin, 1-3 oz. ; mix thoroughly, and make 
into a paste with boiled linseed oil to 
which driers have been added. Beat it 
well, and let it stand 4 or 5 hours before 
using. Soda silicate and chalk make a 
good cement. 

Mica, Cement for. — A colorless cement 
for joining sheets of mica is prepared as 
follows : Clear gelatine is softened by 
soaking it in a little cold water, and the 
excess of water is pressed out by gently 
squeezing it in a cloth. It is then heated 
over a water bath until it begins to melt, 
and just enough hot proof spirit (not in 
excess) stirred in to make it fluid. To 
each pint of this solution is gradually 
added, while stirring, i^ oz. of gum am- 
moniac and 1 1-3 oz. of rectified spirit. 



It must be warmed to liquify it for use, 
and kept in stoppered bottles when not 
required. This cement, when properly 
prepared, resists cold water. 

Opticians' Cement. — 1, — Shellac, soft- 
ened with rectified spirit or wooo napn- 
tha. For fine work. 

2. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; rosin, 15 oz. Melt, 
and add whiting (previously made red 
hot, and still warm), 4 oz. 

Signs, Filling, Cement for. — ^Melt to- 
gether, in a clean iron pot, 2 parts each 
of best asphaltum and gutta percha ; stir 
well together, and then add 1 part ot 
gum shellac in fine powder. It may be 
used hot and mixed with smalt, vermil- 
ion, or other pigment, if desired. 

Zinc White Cement. — '1, mastic ; 2, 
dammar; 3, sandarac; 4, Venetian tur- 
pentine ; 5, turpentine ; 6. benzol ; 7, zinc 
white. 1, 2 and 3, powdered, are mixed 
in a well-corked bottle with 4, 5 and 6 ; 
shake well occasionally ; after several 
days filter, and triturate in a mortar with 
zinc white in q. s. Dilute, if necessary, 
with benzol. 

GLUE 

Glue is a cement used for joining pieces 
of wood together, and has for its chief 
constituent a substance called gelatine, 
obtained from the cuttings of hides, skins, 
tendons and other refuse parts of animals, 
as well as from cuttings of leather ana 
parchment, which, after being well soakea 
in milk of lime, to dissolve any blood, 
flesh or fat, are thoroughly washed in a 
stream of water to remove the lime. The 
material is then boiled in water until the 
required adhesive strength is obtained, 
when the liquid is run off into a cistern, 
and clarified with powdered alum, which 
precipitates in the form of sulphate any 
lime that may remain, as well as other 
impurities. Before cooling it is drawn 
off into molds, and is then in the form of 
size, which, when cut into slices, and 
dried in the air, hardens into glue. 

Hints About Glue 

1, — Good glue should be a light brown 
color, semi-transparent, and free from 
waves or cloudy lines. Glue loses much 
of its strength by frequent remelting; 
therefore, glue which is newly made is 
preferable to that which has been re- 
boiled. The hotter the glue the more 
force it will exert in keeping the joined 
parts ^ glued together. In all large and 
long joints it should be applied immedi- 
ately after boiling. Apply pressure until 
it is set or hardened. Glue, being an ani- 
mal substance, must be kept sweet. To 
do this keep it cool after it is once dis- 
solved, and not in use. In all cases keep 



[187] 



(Liquid Glues) 



(Liquid Glues) 



the glue kettle clean and sweet, by clean- 
ing it often. Good glue requires more 
water than poor. The best glue will re- 
quire from one-half to more than double 
the water that is required with poor glue, 
which is clear and red; the quality can 
be discovered by breaking a piece. If 
good, it will break hard and tough, and 
will be irregular on the broken edge. If 
poor, it will break comparatively easy, 
leaving a smooth, straight edge. In dis- 
solving glue, it is best to weigh the glue, 
and weigh or measure the water; other- 
wise, there is a liability of getting more 
glue than the water can properly dis- 
solve. It is a good plan, when once the 
quantity of water that any sample of 
glue will take up has been ascertained, 
to put the glue and water together at 
least ^ hours before heat is applied, and 
if it is not soft enough then, _ let it re- 
main longer in soak, for there is no dan- 
ger in letting good glue remain in pure 
water, even for 48 hours. The advan- 
tage of frozen glue is that it can be made 
up at once, on account of its being so 
porous. Frozen glue of same grade is as 
strong as if dried. If glue is of first-rate 
quality, it can be used on most kinds 
of woodwork very thin; and will make the 
joint as strong as the original. White 
glue is made white by bleaching. 

Liquid Glue 

1. — Glue, cut in small pieces, 6 parts ; 
water, 16 parts, poured over it and al- 
lowed to stand for a few hours ; add sul- 
phate of zinc, iy2 parts ; hydrochloric-acid 
gas, 1 part. Keep the mixture at a tem- 
perature of 175 to 190° F. for 10 or 12 
hours. This glue may be used for join- 
ing all articles, even porcelain, glass, 
mother-of-pearl, etc. It does not con- 
geal. 

2. — Best white glue, 4 parts; lead car- 
bonate, 1 part ; rain water, 8 parts ; alco- 
hol, 1 part. Dissolve the glue in the 
water on a water bath, stirring constant- 
ly; then mix in the lead carbonate, add 
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a 
few minutes ; lastly, pour into bottles 
while it is still hot. 

3.— Take a wide-mouthed bottle, and 
dissolve in it 8 oz. best glue, in i^ pt. 
of water, by setting it in a vessel of 
water and heating until dissolved. Then 
add, slowly, 2i/^ oz. of strong aquafortis 
(nitric acid), 36° B., stirring all the 
while. Effervescence takes place under 
generation of nitrous acid. When all the 
acid has been added the liquid is allowed 
to cool. Keep it well corked, and it will 
be ready for use at any moment. 



4. — Quick-Setting Glue Cements. — 'For 
paper, cloth, leather, wood, earthenware, 
etc.: (a) Soak 1 lb. of white fish glue 
4 hours in 30 fl.oz. of cold water ; ( b ) 
mix 4 oz. of dry white lead with 2 fl.oz. 
of hot water; (c) 4 oz. 90% alcohol. 
Dissolve (a) by aid of glue pot, then 
slowly add (b). Gook for about 10 min- 
utes, then let cool to about 100° F. Now, 
with constant stirring, add (c). This 
cement sets in about 1 minute, due to 
the alcohol used. It is non-elastic, and 
extremely hard. For leather and cloth, if 
wanted pliable, add 2 to 4 oz. of glycer« 
ine, according to the elasticity desired. 
The above cement, without glycerine, and 
with the addition of 4 oz. of red lead, 
will stand a bath in hot oil without frying 
out. 

5. — Russian Liquid Glue. — Soften 50 
parts of best Russian glue in 50 parts of 
warm water; add, slowly, from 2% to 3 
parts of aquafortis and 3 parts of pow- 
dered sulphate of lead. 

6. — ^Spaulding's Glue. — Soak the glue 
in cold water, using only glass, earthen 
or porcelain dishes. Then by gentle heat 
dissolve the glue in the same water, and 
pour in a small quantity of nitric acid, 
sufficient to give the glue a sour taste, 
like vinegar, about 1 oz. to every pound 
of glue. 
Special Glues 

1. — Elastic Glue. — ^a. — Best glue, 7 
av.oz. ; glycerine, 16 fl.oz. ; water, enough 
Pour on the glue more than enough water 
to cover, allow to macerate for several 
hours, then decant the greater portion of 
water ; apply heat until the glue is dis- 
solved, and add the glycerine. If the 
mixture is too thick, more water may be 
added. It may be colored bv means of 
an aniline dye, dissolved in alcohol. The 
addition of a little calcium chloride also 
tends to prevent the glue from cracking. 
May be used for camera bellows. 

b. — The following does not spoil : Dis- 
solve good common glue in water, on the 
water bath, and evaporate t.bf> water down 
to a mass of thick consistency ; add a 
quantity of glycerine equal in weight with 
the glue, after which continue, the heat- 
ing until all the water has been driven 
off ; pour the mass out into molds or on 
a marble slab. This mixture answers for 
stamps, printer's rolls, galvano-plastic 
copies, etc. 

2. — Ether Glue. — Dissolve glue in nitric 
ether. The ether will dissolve only a cer- 
tain amount of glue, therefore the solu- 
tion cannot be made very thick ; it will 
be about the consistency of molasses, and 
is much more tenacious than glue made 
with hot water. It is improved by add- 



[188] 



(Marine Glue) 



(Mucilages) 



ing a few bits of India rubber, cut into 
pieces about the size of a buckshot. Let 
the solution stand a few days, stirring 
frequently. 

3. — Fireproof Glue. — Mix a handful of 
quicklime in 4 oz. of linseed oil, boil to 
a good thickness, then spread on tin plates 
io the shade, and it will become exceed- 
ingly hard, but may be easily dissolved 
over the fire, and used as ordinary glue. 

4. — Frozen Glue. — The glue, while gel- 
atinous, is sliced, placed on nets, and al- 
lowed to freeze by natural cold. Of 
course, the process can only be conducted 
in cold weather. The product is porous, 
and much more bulky than hard glue, but 
is a better article, as it dissolves more 
easily. It sells largely in New England, 
where it is preferred by buyers to the 
hard glue. 

5. — Isinglass Glue. — Dissolve isinglass 
in water, and strain it through coarse 
linen. Then add a little alcohol, and 
evaporate to such a consistency that when 
cold it will be dry and hard. This will 
be found to be more tenacious than com- 
mon glue, and therefore preferable in 
many cases. 

G. — Marine Glue. — a. — Although now 
far from new, the extremely valuable ma- 
rine glue of Jeffrey does not seem to be 
as well known in this country as it de- 
serves. Prepared by dissolving 1 part of 
India rubber in crude benzine, and mix- 
ing with 2 parts of shellac, by the aid of 
heat. The waterproof character of this 
cement, in connection with its slight elas- 
tic flexibility, the ease with which it is 
applied when warm, and the promptness 
with which it sets, on cooling, make it a 
most useful substance in many applica- 
tions to house construction and furniture, 
as well as on board ship, where it was 
originally intended to be chiefly employed. 

b. — Caoutchouc, 1 oz. ; genuine asphal- 
tum, 2 oz. ; benzole or naphtha, q. s. The 
caoutchouc is first dissolved by digestion 
and occasional agitation, and the asphal- 
tum is gradually added. The solution 
should have about the consistency of mo- 
lasses. 

7. — Parchment Glue. — -Parchment, 10 
parts, is cut into small pieces, and boiled 
in 128 parts of water until the liquid is 
reduced to 80 parts. The decoction is 
filtered through linen, and evaporated over 
a gentle fire until it presents the required 
consistency. 

8.— Powdered Glue, Soluble Cold.— 
Carbonate of potash, 1 part ; alum, IV2 
parts ; ordinary glue or fish glue, 10 
parts ; water. 4 parts. The whole is 
mixed and boiled, dried by ordinary meth- 



ods, and then pulverized. It is applicable 
to any use. _ , 

9.— Rubber Glue.— Take 1 lb. of glue, 
cover it with cold water in a vessel in 
which it can be heated, let it stand over 
night; then add 1 fl.oz. of glycerine, and 
apply heat; bring to the boiling point, 
and continue the boiling for about 15 min- 
utes ; take oif the fire and add to it color- 
ing matter, if desired, and pour into 
molds, from which remove when it has 
become rigid. Keep in a cool place ; when 
used, apply gentle heat to soften, being 
careful never to bring to a boil. 

10. — 'Stratena. — This well-known house- 
hold cement is said to be prepared as 
follows : White glue, 6 parts, dissolved 
in 8 parts of acetic acid ; this solution is 
added to another composed of 1 part of 
French gelatine in 8 parts of water. 
After mixing add 1 part of shellac var- 
nish. 

11. — Tungstic Glue. — Tungstic glue has 
been suggested as a substitute for hard 
India rubber, as it can be used for all 
the purposes to which the latter is ap- 
plicable. It is thus prepared : Mix a 
thick solution of glue with tungstate of 
soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound 
of tungstic acid and glue is precipitated^ 
which, at a temperature of 86 to 104^ 
F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out 
into very thin sheets. 

12. — Veneering Glues, "Well Suited for 
Inlaying. — The best glue is readily known 
by its transparency, and being of a rather 
light brown, free from clouds and streaks. 
Dissolve this in water, and to every pint 
add y^ gill of the best vinegar and ^ oz. 
of isinglass. 

MUCILAGES 

1. — The best quality of mucilage in the 
market is made by dissolving clear glue 
in equal volumes of water and strong 
vinegar, and adding one-fourth of an 
equal volume of alcohol, and a small 
quantity of a solution of alum in water. 
The action of the vinegar is due to the 
acetic acid which it contains. This pre- 
vents the glue from gelatinizing by cool- 
ing ; but the same result may be accom- 
plished by adding a small quantity of 
nitric acid. Some of the preparations of- 
fered for sale are merely boiled starch or 
flour mixed with nitric acid to prevent the 
gelatinizing. 

2. — A strong aqueous solution of rea- 
sonably pure dextrine (British gum) 
forms a most adhesive and cheap muci- 
lage. Alcohol is usually employed as the 
solvent where the mucilage is to be used 
for gumming envelopes, postage stamps, 
etc., in order to facilitate the drying, and 
acetic acid is added to increase the mo- 



[1891 



(Pastes) 



(Flour Pastes) 



bility of the fluid. The strong aqueous 
solution is more adhesive than that pre- 
pared with alcohol, for the reason that it 
contains a greater proportion of the gum. 
To prepare this, add an excess of pow- 
dered dextrine to boiling water, stir for 
a moment or two, allow to cool and set- 
tle, and strain the liquid through a fine 
cloth. The addition of a little powdered 
sugar increases the glossiness of the dried 
gum without interfering greatly with its 
adhesiveness. The sugar should be dis- 
solved in the water before the dextrine 
is added. 

3. — Add British gum (dextrine) to a 
quantity of hot water until a syrupy li- 
quid is obtained ; then add a few drops 
of clove oil, and cool for use. 

4. — .Dietrich recommends the following 
as equal to any gum arable mucilage : 
Dextrine, 400 parts, stirred in 400 parts 
of water, diluted with 200 parts more of 
water ; 20 parts of glucose and 10 parts of 
aluminum sulphate are added, and the 
mixture heated to about 195° F., when the 
mass will become transparent and thin. 

5. — Brown dextrine, 1 lb. ; acetic acid, 

4 oz. ; alcohol, 4 oz. ; water, q. s. add 2 
pt. Dissolve the dextrine in 1 pt. of boil- 
ing water, strain through Canton flannel ; 
add the acetic acid, and when nearly cold 
add the alcohol, stirring thoroughly. 

6. — Dextrine, 10 drams; glucose, % 
dram ; in which is dissolved a solution of 
alum, 15 gr. ; glycerine, 1 dr. ; water, to 
make 2 oz. 

7. — White dextrine, 6 oz. ; dilute acetic 
acid, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 10 drops ; glyc- 
erine, 1 oz. ; water, to make 16 oz. Mix 
the dextrine thoroughly with 6 oz. of cold 
water, add 8 oz, of boiling water, boil 

5 minutes, stirring constantly; add hot 
water sufiicient to make 14 oz. When it 
is cold add the acetic acid, oil of cloves 
and glycerine. The oil must be thor- 
oughly mixed with the remainder. 

Tragacanth Mucilage 

1. — ^(a) Pulverized tragacanth, 1 oz. : 
glycerine, 4 fl.oz. (b) Boiling water, 16 
fl.oz. Macerate the tragacanth with the 
glycerine in a glass mortar, then stir the 
paste into the boiling water. This makes 
a very thick mucilage ; 32 fl.oz, of boiling 
water gives a medium, and 64 fl.oz, a thin 
paste. Tragacanth paste works very 
smooth, but is not very adhesive. 

2. — Tragacanth, 1 av.oz. ; gum arable, 
1 av.oz. ; boiling water, 64 fl.oz. ; car- 
bolic acid, 1 fl.dr. 

PASTES 
1.— White dextrine (5 lb. or), 5% lb.; 
water, at 160° F., 1 gal. ; oil of winter- 



green, 30 min. ; oil of cloves, 30 min. Dis- 
solve the dextrine in the water ; after 
cooling, add the oils, pour into suitable 
bottles, cork, and then put in a cool place. 
In from 1 to 2 weeks the solution will 
have congealed. However, this "ripen- 
ing" process may be expedited by expos- 
ing the bottles in an ice chamber to a 
temperature of about 40°. Formaldehyde 
as a preservative, in this instance, seems 
to be contraindicated, on account of its 
interference with the congealing process. 
This latter, the author is inclined to 
think, is the result of molecular changes 
in the dextrine, since after the solution 
once has set it may be liquefied in a 
water bath any number of times, and 
gelation will take place again within less 
than 24 hours. As little as 4 lb. of dex- 
trine to 1 gal. of water may successfully 
be used, if desired. The author points 
out that the best-known of this class of 
library pastes is broadly covered by a 
patent, but he naturally asks, how a pat- 
ent on a solution of dextrine in water can 
hold. 

2, — Take 1 qt. of water and dissolve 
in it 1 teaspoonful of pure powdered 
alum. Stir into this enough flour to 
make a thick cream. Break up every lit- 
tle lump of flour until the mixture is 
smooth. Stir in next 1 teaspoonful of 
powdered rosin. Now pour in 1 cupful 
of boiling water. Stir it all well. When 
the mixture has thickened from cooking 
by the boiling water pour into an earthen 
vessel, cover it up, and keep it in a cool 
place; add a few drops of oil of cloves. 
Whenever you want to use any portion 
of it, take what you need and soften it 
with a little warm water. This will give 
you a perfect paste, clean, wholesome, 
and lasting. You will be surprised how 
little waste you will have. Should you 
need larger quantities, increase the pro- 
portions in proper ratio, doubling or treb- 
ling each ingredient, according to the 
magnitude of the business requiring it. — 

3. — A solution of 2% oz. of gum arable 
in 2 qt. of warm water is thickened to 
a paste with wheat flour ; to this is added 
a solution of alum and sugar of lead, 
1% oz. each, in water; the mixture is 
heated, and stirred about to boil, and is 
then cooled. It may be thinned, if neces- 
sary, with a gum solution. 

4. — Flour, 4 oz. ; powdered alum, % 
oz, ; water, 1 qt. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops ; 
salicylic acid, 20 grams; alcohol, 2 dr. 
Mix the flour and alum, and sift; add 
water slowly until a perfectly smooth 
mixture results. Then cook over a steady 
fire or flame until the paste is made. As 
it is cooling add the clove oil and salicylic 



[190] 



(Putty) 



(Fireproof Adhesives) 



acid, dissolved in the alcohol. Bottle in 
wide-mouthed bottles of 3 or 4 oz. each, 
cork well, and keep in a cool, dry place. 

Postage Stamp Mucilage. — a.. — Gum 
dextrine, 2 parts ; water, 5 parts ; 
acetic acid, 1 part. Dissolve by aid of 
heat, and add 1 part of 90% alcohol. 

b. — Dissolve 1 lb. of gum dextrine in 
1 pt. of boiling water, strain through flan- 
nel, and add 2 oz. of acetic acid. When 
nearly cold add 4 oz. of alcohol, stir con- 
stantly, and finally enough warm water 
to make 1 qt. 

PUTIT 

Putty may be considered as a cement. 
It is prepared by mixing fine whiting with 
linseed oil or linseed-oil varnish, the lat- 
ter drying more quickly. The whiting 
should be passed through a sieve, the 
meshes being 42 threads to the inch. It 
should be dry before sifting, and be thor- 
oughly incorporated with the oil, a tedious 
operation. Keep in oiled paper or un- 
der water. White lead is sometimes mixed 
with the putty. Color, if desired, with 
dry colors. 

In the mixing of putty, use a stiff putty 
knife, and mix a large quantity at one 
time, as it improves with age. Pound 
your putty on the mixing block to expel 
the accumulated moisture that might be 
in the putty, also to make it tough and 
elastic. When you are pounding the putty 
add more dry pigment, if needed, as the 
more pigment you use the better the putty 
will be ; but care should be taken not to 
use too much dry pigment, making your 
putty too dry. After mixing, put it in 
a clean can, and cover with clean water, 
for future use. A good putty knife for 
puttying gears may be made out of an 
old %-inch wide spatula, cut off about 
3 inches from the end of the ferrule. 

To Soften Putty that has become hard, 
break the putty up in as small pieces 
as possible, put in an iron kettle with 
enough water to cover it, add a little raw 
linseed oil, and let it boil, and stir well 
while hot. The putty will readily ab- 
sorb the oil ; pour off the water, and when 
cool work it into shape, and it will be 
found good as new. This process is rec- 
ommended by a large paint concern. 

1. — Keg white lead, ^ lb. ; dry white 
lead, % lb. ; pale japan, 3 oz. ; quick rub- 
bing varnish, 3 oz. Quicken up with 
Reno's raw or burnt umber, keystone 
filler, or dry lampblack. 

2- — Dry white lead, % part ; keg white 
lead, % part; mixed rough stuff, % part; 
rubbing varnish, % part; pale japan, % 
part ; turpentine, 14= part. 

3. — (Black Putty for Irons. — Dry lamp- 



black, 3 parts ; dry white lead, 1 part ; 
dry keystone filler, 1 part ; rubbing var- 
nish and japan, half and half. 

4. — French Putty. — a. — Kuban pre- 
pares this substance by boiling 7 parts of 
linseed oil with 4 parts of brown umber 
for 2 hours ; 5^ parts of chalk and 11 
parts of white lead are then added, and 
the whole well mixed. This putty is very 
durable, and adheres well to wood, even 
though not previously painted. 

b. — Gum arable, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ; 
potato starch, 4 parts. 

5. — Glazing Putty. — Keg white lead 
mixed with japan, 2 parts ; rubbing var- 
nish, 1 part ; turpentine, 1 part ; add a 
little dry color the same as the job is 
to be when painted. Make the paint a 
stiff paste or soft putty, the same as the 
job they are used on, by using consistency, 
and with a stiff brush spread this on 
the body and running parts. 

6.— Soft Putty.— a.— Whiting, 10 lb.; 
white lead, 1 lb. ; mix with the necessary 
quantity of boiled linseed oil, adding to 
it % gill of the best olive oil. The last 
prevents the white lead from hardening, 
and preserves the putty in a state suffi- 
ciently soft to adhere tit all times, and 
not, by getting hard and cracking off", 
suffering the wet to enter, as is often the 
case with ordinary hard putty. 

b. — A very strong putty is made of 
boiled oil and whiting, for exposed situa- 
tions, as skylights, but is not adapted for 
keeping; it gets too hard. 

c. — Putty for good inside work is im- 
proved by adding white lead. 

d. — Another putty which requires to be 
made as wanted (as it gets hard almost 
immediately) is composed of red lead in 
powder, mixed with boiled oil and turpen- 
tine varnish, and is used for fronts of 
houses, or any place requiring a hard 
putty. 

e. — Some manufacturers prepare an oil 
for the purpose of melting 20 lb. of rosin 
and mixing it with 90 lb. of linseed oil, 
the rosin being used for economy's sake. 

f. — rFor some purposes a drying oil may 
be used with the whiting. This is made 
by mixing 1 gal. of linseed oil, 12 oz. of 
litharge, 1 oz. of sugar of lead, and 1 oz. 
of white vitriol ; simmer for some lime, 
allow to cool, and when settled draw it 
off. 

FIREPROOF ADHESIVES 
1. — Iron filings, 100 parts; hydraulic 
lime, 20 parts; quartz sand, 25 parts; 
sal ammoniac, 3 parts. These are formed 
into a paste with vinegar, and then ap- 
plied. The cement is left to dry slowly 
before heating. 



[191] 



( Waterproof Adhesives ) 



(Waterproof Glues) 



2. — Iron filings, 180 parts ; lime, 45 
parts ; common salt, 8 parts, these are 
worked into a paste with strong vinegar. 
The cement must be perfectly dry before 
being heated. By heating it becomes stone 
hard. 

3. — Linseed or almond meal, mixed to 
a paste with milk, lime water, or starch 
paste; resists a temperature of 500° F. 
(260° G.). 

4. — Clay is puddled with water, and to 
it is added the greatest possible quantity 
of sand which has been passed through 
a hair sieve ; the whole is worked up in 
the hands, and applied in coats more or 
less thick on vessels needing protection 
from the direct action of fire. 

5. — Sifted manganese peroxide, 1 part ; 
pulverized zinc white, 1 part ; sufficient 
commercial soluble glass to form a thin 
paste. To be used immediately. Beconres 
very hard, and presents a complete re- 
sistance to red heat and boiling water. 

6. — As a coating for glass vessels, to 
protect them from injury during exposure 
to fire, pipeclay and horse dung are made 
into a paste with water. This composi- 
tion is applied by spreading it on paper ; 
it is used by pipemakers, and will stand 
the extreme heat of their furnaces for 
24 hours without damage. 

Labels on Metal 

1. — To attach paper to metal, and pro- 
duce strong adherence, as desired for cards 
and labels, a small quantity of carbonate 
of potash should be added to the paste. 

2. — Paint the label (which must fee 
thoroughly dried ) with collodion ; apply 
a thin film of ordinary turpentine or of 
the lacquer with which the metal is cov- 
ered, and press the label upon the sur- 
face of the container. If the vessels to 
be labeled are cylindrical in form, it is 
^advantageous to add a few drops of cas- 
tor oil to the lacquer used for fastening 
the paper. 

3. — A label paste for paper or cloth 
to metals is composed of: Starch, 20 
parts ; sugar, 10 parts ; zinc chlorite, 1 
part ; water, 200 parts. Mix the ingredi- 
ents to a smooth paste, and heat cautious- 
ly until it thickens. Stir down- remove 
from the fire, and let cool. 

WATERPROOF ADHESIVES 
Cements 

1. — ^Soak pure glue in water until it is 
soft, then dissolve it in the smallest pos- 
sible amount of proof spirits by the aid 
of gentle heat. In 2 oz. of this mixture 
dissolve 10 grams of gum ammoniacum, 
and while still liquid add i/^ dr. of mastic, 



dissolved in 3 dr. of rectified spirits. Stir 
well, and for use keep the cement lique- 
fied in a covered vessel over a hot-water 
bath. 

2. — A good waterproof cement may be 
made by mixing 5 parts of glue, 4 parts 
of rosin and 3 parts of red ocher with a 
little water. 

3. — Shellac, 4 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; boil in 
a little water until dissolved, and concen- 
trate by heat to a paste. 

4. — Carbon bisulphide, 10 parts, and 
oil of turpentine, 1 part, are mixed, and 
as much gutta percha is added as will 
readily dissolve. 

5. — Tar, 1 part ; tallow, 1 part ; fine 
brick dust, 1 part; the tar is warmed 
over a very gentle fire ; the tallow is add- 
ed, then the brick dust, and the whole 
is thoroughly mixed. It must be applied 
while hot. 

6. — Good gray clay, 4 parts ; black ox- 
ide of manganese, 6 parts ; limestone, re- 
duced to powder by sprinkling it with 
water, 90 parts ; mixed, calcined, and 
powdered. 

7. — Manganese iron ore, 15 parts; lime, 
85 parts ; calcined and powdered. 

Both 6 and 7 require to be mixed with 
a little sand for use ; thrown into water 
they harden rapidly. 

8, — Fine, clean sand, 1 cwt. ; powdered 
quicklime, 28 lb. ; bone ash, 14 lb. Beaten 
up with water for use. 

Glues 

1. — Glue, 1 part ; black rosin, 1 part ; 
red ocher, % part ; mix with the least 
possible quantity of water. Or: Glue, 
4 parts; boiled oil, by weight, 1 part; 
oxide of iron, 1 part. 

2. — 'Glue, 1 lb., melted with the least 
quantity of water, and then mixed with 
black rosin, 1 lb., and red ocher, 4 oz. 

8. — Glue, melted as above, and mixed 
with about i/i of its weight each of boiled 
oil and red ocher. 

4. — Ure.: — Melted glue (of the consist- 
ency used by carpenters), 8 parts; linseed 
oil, boiled to varnish, with litharge, 4 
parts ; incorporate thoroughly together. 

5.^ — Glue (melted as last), 4 parts; 
Venice turpentine, 1 part. 

The first three dry in about 48 hours, 
and are very useful to render the joints of 
wooden casks, cisterns, etc., watertight ; 
also to fix stones in frames. The last 
serves to cement glass, wood, and even 
metal, to each other. A good cement for 
fixing wood to glass may be made by dis- 
solving isinglass in acetic acid, in such 
quantities that it becomes solid when cold. 
When applied let it be heated. They all 
resist moisture well. 



[192] 



CHAPTER III. 



CLEANSING OF METALS 



Aluminum 

Cleansing Fluid. — A solution of 30 
grams of borax in 1 1. of water contain- 
ing a few drops of aqua ammonia. 

Discoloration, Removing. — It is neces- 
sary simply to remove the foreign mat- 
ter, and, iortunately, this can be very 
easily done. One way is to boil green 
fruits, particularly rhubarb, in a ves- 
sel. Another is to allow an oxalic acid 
solution — 1 heaping teaspoonful of ox- 
alic acid crystals to 1 gal. of lukewarm 
water — to stand in it overnight ; then 
wash out the utensil thoroughly with cleai 
hot water, rinse, and use as accustomed. 
But more to the point is the fact that, 
although a discolored utensil is unsightly 
in appearance, there is no danger what- 
ever in using it. In other words, the 
impurities form no poisonous compound 
with the aluminum. 

l*olish. — 1. — Aluminum is susceptible 
of taking a beautiful polish. This, un- 
fortunately, is not white, like that of sil- 
ver or nickel, but slightly bluish, like 
tin. The shade can be improved. First, 
the grease is to be removed from the ob- 
ject with pumice stone ; then, for polish- 
ing, use is made of an emery paste min- 
gled with tallow, forming cakes, which 
are rubbed on the polishing brushes. Fi- 
nally, red rouge is employed with oil of 
turpentine. 

2. — Stearic acid, 1 part ; fuller's earth, 

1 part ; tripoli, 6 parts. To give the 
aluminum a natural, pure white color, 
dip it into a strong solution of caustic 
soda or potassa, and then into a bath of 

2 parts of nitric acid and 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid ; thence into pure nitric acid, 
and finally into vinegar diluted with 
water. Rinse in running water, and dry 
in hot sawdust. Burnish with a blood- 
stone burnisher. 

Brass and Copper Cleaning 

1. — There are many substances and 
mixtures which will clean brass. Oxalic 
acid, muriatic acid, and several other 
acids, will clean brass very effectively ; 
oxalic acid is the best, but the acids must 
be well washed off, the brass dried, and 
then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli, 
otherwise it will soon tarnish again, Mix- 



ture to clean brass is : Soft soap, 1 oz. ; 
rotten stone, 2 oz. 

2. — Oxalic acid, 1 oz. ; rotten stone, 2 
oz. ; sweet oil, 1^^ oz. ; spirits of turpen- 
tine, enough to make a paste. When 
used, a little water is added, and friction 
applied. If the brass is very dirty it re- 
quires a strong acid to make it bright ; 
such is chromic acid, best prepared by 
mixing bichromate of potassa, sulphuric 
acid and water, equal parts of each. This 
makes the dirtiest brass bright and clear 
at once, but it must be immediately 
washed off with plenty of water, rubbed 
dry, and polished with rotten stone. There 
are no patents on any of these proceed- 
ings, and if there were, the patentees 
would not be sustained in their claims. 

3. — Wash with rock alum, boiled in a 
strong lye in the proportion of 1 oz. to 
1 pt. ; polish with dry tripoli. 

4. — The government method prescribed 
for cleaning brass, and in use at all the 
United States arsenals, is claimed to be 
the best in the world. The plan is to 
make a mixture of 1 part of common nit- 
ric acid and % part of sulphuric acid, in' 
a stone jar, having also ready a pail of 
fresh water and a box of sawdust. The 
articles to be treated are dipped into 
the acid, then removed into the water, 
and finally rubbed with sawdust. This 
immediately changes them to a brilliant 
color. If the brass has become greasy it 
is first dipped in a strong solution of pot- 
ash and soda in warm water ; this cuts 
the grease, so that the acid has free power 
to act. 

5. — Rub the surface of the metal with 
rotten stone and sweet oil, then rub ort 
with a piece of cotton flannel, and polish 
with soft leather. A solution of oxalic 
acid rubbed over tarnished brass soon re-' 
moves the tarnish, rendering the metal 
bright. The acid must be washed off with 
water, and the brass rubbed with whiting 
and soft leather. A mixture of muriatic 
acid and alum, dissolved in water, im- 
parts a golden color to brass articles that 
are steeped in it for a few seconds. 

,6. — First boil your articles in a pan 
with ordinary washing sOda, to remove 
the old lacquer; then let them stand for 
a short time in dead nitric acid ; then 
run them through bright dipping nitric 



ri93i 



(Cleaning Brass) 



(Brass and Copper Polishing) 



acid. Swill all acid off in clean water, 
and brighten the relieved parts with a 
steel burnisher, replace in clean water, 
and dry out in beech sawdust. Next, 
place your work on the stove till heated, 
so that you can with difficulty bear your 
hand on the articles, and apply pale lac- 
quer with a brush ; the work will burn if 
heated too much or too rapidly. 

7. — Put a coat of nitric acid over the 
part you want cleaned, with a piece of 
rag; as soon as it turns a light yellow 
rub it dry, and the brass will present a 
very clean appearance ; if not satisfac- 
tory, repeat. 

8. — Oxalic acid and whiting, mixed, and 
applied wet with a brush, and brushed 
again when dry with a soft plate brush 
to polish with dry whiting. 

9. — Chalk, 10 parts; white bole, 4 
parts ; magnesium carbonate, 1 part ; iron 
oxide, 1 part. 

10. — Oxalic acid, 1 dr. ; rotten stone, 
in powder, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, % dr. ; soft soap, % 
oz. ; sweet oil, 5 dr. First dissolve the 
acid in the water, then add the rotten 
stone and other ingredients. 

11. — Oxalic acid, 1 part ; iron peroxide, 
15 parts ; powdered rotton stone, 20 
parts ; palm oil, 60 parts ; petrolatum, 4 
parts. See that solids are thoroughly pul- 
verized and sifted, then add, and thor- 
oughly incorporate, the oil and petrola- 
tum. 

12. — Starch, 1 part; powdered rotten 
stone, 12 parts ; sweet oil, 2 parts ; oxalic 
acid, 2 parts ; water to mix. 

13. — To 1 oz. of powdered potassium 
bichromate add 2 oz. each of sulphuric 
acid and water. Apply by dipping or 
rubbing the article to be cleaned, and 
wash off immediately with water; rub 
dry, and polish with rotten stone. 

14. — Oxalic acid, 3 parts ; water, 50 
parts ; kieselguhr, 7 parts. Dissolve the 
acid and add the earth. Shake before 
using. 

15. — It would not suffice to pickle brass 
objects ; the brilliancy thus produced 
would not be durable. To attain a good 
polish, the surfaces have to be rubbed 
with very fine tripoli, mixed with olive 
oil; next rinse with soap water and wipe 
dry with fine linen. 

16. — Brass work that is so dirty from 
smoke and heat as not to be cleaned with 
oxalic acid should be thoroughly washed 
or scrubbed with soda, or potash water, 
or lye. Then dip in a mixture of equal 
parts of nitric acid, sulphuric acid and 
water ; or, if it cannot be conveniently 
dipped, make a swab of a small piece of 
woolen cloth upon the end of a stick, and 



rub the solution over the dirty or smoky 
parts ; leave the acid on for a minute, and 
then wash clean and polish. 

17.— Fly Specks, To Remove.— If you 
cannot wash off the fly specks with soap 
and warm water on a cloth, there is no 
way that an amateur can refinish lamp 
work with any satisfaction. To do this 
the lamp must be taken apart and the 
brasswork boiled in caustic soda to re- 
move all oil and varnish ; then rinse in 
hot water and dip in strong nitric acid 
for a few seconds only, when it will come 
out clean and bright ; then rinse clean 
in boiling water. Dry in sawdust, brush 
off, and lacquer with thin shellac varnish. 
The metal must be warm and perfectly 
free from grease. 

18. — Gun Shells. — For such as have 
been used, boil in a strong solution of 
caustic soda, rinse in hot water, then 
dip in a hot pickle of sulphuric acid, 1 
part; water, 4 parts; and rinse in hot 
water. 

19. — Inlaid Work. — Mix tripoli and lin- 
seed oil, and dip felt into tfie prepara- 
tion. With this, polish. If the wood be 
rosewood or ebony, polish it with finely 
powdered elder ashes, or make a polishing 
paste of rotten stone, a pinch of starch, 
sweet oil and oxalic acid, mixed with 
water. 

Brass and Copper Polishing 

The Wiener Seifensieder-Zeitung pub- 
lishes the following collection of formulas 
for copper and brass polishes: 

1. — Cream of tartar, 5 parts ; alum, 10 
parts; sodium chloride, 10 parts; water, 
100 parts. The salts are dissolved in the 
water, and the solution is allowed to 
stand several days. A white precipitate 
is formed, from which the liquid is de- 
canted. If turpid, the liquid must be fil-' 
tered through paper. 

2. — Dissolve 10 parts of tartaric acid 
in 100 parts of water, and mix with 5 
to 10 parts of ferric oxide. 

3. — Pour 1 part of sulphuric acid care- 
fully into 20 parts of water, stirring with 
a stick of wood. Dissolve 2 parts of 
alum in the dilute acid, and add 2 parts 
of fine potato meal. The meal must be 
thoroughly rubbed down with the acid 
liquid, added in small portions at a time, 
until a homogeneous paste is obtained. 
This preparation must be kept in bottles 
closed with paraffin^^d corks. 

4. — Oxalic acid, 500 parts ; tripoli, or 
infusorial earth, 150 parts. 

5. — Ammonia water, concentrated, 50 
parts ; water, 100 parts ; prepared chalk, 
20 parts. Red or yellow aniline dye, as 
much as desired. 



ri94i 



(Brass and Copper Polishing) 



(Brass and Copper Polishing) 



6. — Sal ammoniac, 10 parts, is dissolved 
in 75 parts of water, and 5 parts of chalk 
added. 

7. — Flowers of sulphur, 10 parts; 
ground chalk, 10 parts; mix with 100 
parts of vinegar. 

8.— Alcohol, 80%, 100 parts; olein, 50 
parts ; tartaric acid, 80 parts ; tripoli, 30 
parts. Mix the tartaric acid (in powder 
form) with the alcohol, whereby the acm 
is partly dissolved. Then add the olein, 
and finally the tripoli, taking care to mix 
thoroughly. 

9. — Rotton stone, 3 oz. ; powdered soap, 
1 oz. Apply with a little spirit of turpen- 
tine or sweet oil. 

10. — Brass, Copper, German Silver, 
etc., To Polish. — Use Vienna lime, with 
oil. 

Brass. — 1. — Rub the metal with rotten 
stone and sweet oil, then rub off with a 
piece of cotton flannel, and polish with 
soft leather. A solution of oxalic acid, 
rubbed over tarnished brass, soon removes 
the tarnish, rendering the metal bright. 
The acid must be washed off with water, 
and the brass rubbed with whiting and 
soft leather. A mixture of muriatic acid 
and alum dissolved in water imparts a 
golden color to brass articles that are 
steeped in it for a few seconds. 

2. — In polishing old brass work which 
has been scratched and tarnished by wear, 
pumice or bath brick should be used with 
soap and water for scouring off with, and 
rotten stone, with kerosene oil, for the 
wet finish, and dry for the final polish. 
The same method should be used for new 
brasswork. New work should require, 
after leaving the lathe and vise tools, but 
little polishing or grinding, and every good 
workman should try to avoid using an 
emery stick or emery cloth, as with prop- 
er care in the use of tools a great deal 
of grinding and polishing can be dispensed 
with. The polishing of metals varies 
somewhat according to their character, 
but the main principle underlying all is 
the substitution of progressively finer 
scratches for those left by the material 
last used, until they become so delicate as 
to be invisible without the aid of a mi- 
croscope. 

3. — Three parts of oxalic acid are dis- 
solved in 40 parts of hot water ; add 
100 parts of powdered pumice stone, 2 
parts of oil of turpentine, 12 parts of 
soft soap and 12 parts of a fat oil. 

4. — Rotten stone, 7 oz. ; powdered ox- 
alic acid, 1 oz. Both are used with a lit- 
tle water. 

5. — Soft soap, 2 oz. ; rotten stone, 4 
oz. ; beaten to a paste. 



6. — Rotten stone, made into a paste 
with sweet oil. 

7. — Rotten stone, 4 oz. ; oxalic acid, 
in fine powder, 1 oz. ; sweer oil, 1^^ oz. ; 
turpentine, q. s. to make a paste. 

The above are used to clean brasswork, 
when neither varnished nor lacquered. 
The first and last are best applied with 
a little water. Both require friction with 
soft leather. 

8. — Make a paste of equal parts of sul- 
phur and chalk, with sufiicient vinegar to 
reduce it to the proper consistency ; apply 
it to the metal while moist, allow it to 
dry on, and rub with a chamois skin. 
For ornaments or engraved work, clean 
with a brush. 

9. — Another process, and one that gives 
to the brass a very brilliant color, is to 
make a wash of alum boiled in strong 
lye, in the proportion of 1 oz. of alum 
to 1 pt. of lye. Wash the brass with 
-this mixture, and afterward rub with 
chamois and tripoli. 

10. — A weak solution of ammonia in 
water makes an excellent wash. Apply 
it with a rag, dry with a piece of chamois, 
and afterward rub with a piece of chamois 
and a very small quantity of jewelers' 
rouge. 

11. — Place 2 oz. of sulphuric acid in an 
earthen vessel and add 1 qt. of cold soft 
water ; after the heat that is generated 
has passed off add 1 oz. each of tripoli 
and jewelers' rouge. When well mixed 
put in a bottle for use. 

12. — Brass may be polished without a 
burnisher by using an exceedingly fine cut 
file and fine emery cloth. 

13. — Small articles to be polished 
should be shaken by themselves for a 
short time ; then some greasy parings of 
leather should be put in the barrel witli 
them. After they have been shaken 
smooth the greasy leather parings are re- 
placed by clean ones, and the shaking is 
continued as long as necessary. 

14. — When the brass is made smooth 
by turning, or filing with a very fine file, 
it may be rubbed with a smooth, fine- 
grained stone, or with charcoal and water. 
When it is made quite smooth, and free 
from scratches, it may be polished with 
rotten stone and oil, alcohol, or spirits of 
turpentine. 

15. — Brasswork can be polished by rub- 
bing the metal with finely powdered trip- 
oli mixed with sweet oil, and applied with 
a rubber made from a piece of an old hat 
or felt. Or else a mixture of glycerine, 
stearine, naphthaline or creosote^ mixed 
with dilyte sulphuric acid, can be used. 



[195] 



(Bronze and Gilt) 



(Copper Cleansing) 



Bronze and Gilt (See also Brass and 
Copper above) 

1. — Clean the surface, first of all, with 
whiting and water, or crocus powder, un- 
til it is polished ; then cover with a paste 
of plumbago and crocus, mixed in the 
proportions that will produce the desired 
color. Heat the paste over a small char- 
coal fire. Perhaps the bronzing has been 
produced by a corrosive process ; if so, 
try painting a solution of sulphide of po- 
tassium over the cleaned metal. 

2. — Articles of bronze are best cleaned 
by the use of a paste made of powdered 
chicory and water. The paste is spread 
over the bronze and rubbed well over the 
surface by means of a stiff brush (an old 
stiff tooth brush will answer), and then 
allowed to dry on the arciei*^. ^iter dry- 
ing, rinse off the powder with runnina; 
water, and dry in the sun. Wiping off 
with an oiled rag will improve the looks 
of modern bronzes. 

3. — Rub delicate objects with a sponge 
charged with a mixture of 28 parts of 
alcohol, 14 parts of water and 4 parts of 
lavender oil. 

4. — Fly Specks. — Lavender oil, 1 dr. ; 
alcohol, 1 oz. ; water, 1% oz. Use a soft 
sponge, and proceed quickly, with little 
rubbing. 

5. — Gilded Bronze. — a. — Commence by 
removing the spots of grease and wax with 
a little potash or soda dissolved in water. 
Let dry, and apply the following mixture 
with a rag : Carbonate of soda, 7 parts ; 
whiting, 15 parts ; 85° alcohol, 50 parts ; 
water, 125 parts. When this coating is 
dry pass over it a fine linen cloth or a 
picee of supple skin. The hollow parts 
are cleaned with a brush. 

b. — After removing the grease spots, as 
specified above, let dry, and pass over all 
the damaged parts a pencil dipped in the 
following mixture : Alum. 2 parts ; nitric 
acid, 65 parts; water, 250 parts. When 
the gilding becomes bright, wipe, and dry 
in the sun or near a fire. 

c. — Wash in hot water containing a lit- 
tle soda, dry, and pass over the gilding a 
pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30 parts 
of nitric acid, 4 parts ^>r aluminum sul- 
phate and 125 parts of pure water. Dry 
in sawdust. 

d. — Immerse the objects in boiling soap 
water and facilitate the action of the soap 
by^ rubbing with a soft brush ; put the 
objects in hot water, brush them care- 
fully, and let them dry in the air ; when 
they are quite dry rub with an old linen 
cloth or a soft skin the shining parts only, 
without touching the others. 



e. — If greasy, wash carefully in suds ; 
or, better, dip into a hot solution of caus- 
tic potash, and then wash in suds with 
a soft rag, and rinse in running water. 
If not then clean and bright, dip into the 
following mixture : Nitric acid, 10 parts ; 
aluminum sulphate, 1 part ; water, 4() 
parts. Mix. Rinse in running water. 

f. — Boil in a weak alkali prepared from 
an infusion of wood ashes. Then clean 
with a solution composed of equal parts 
of nitric acidj water ajjd alum. 

Copper (See also Brass) 

1. — Take 1 oz. of oxalic acid, 6 oz. of 
rotten stone, % oz. of gum arable, all in 
powder, 1 oz. of sweet oil, and sufficient 
water to make a paste. Apply a small 
portion, and rub dry with a flannel or 
leather. 

2. — Use soft soap and rotten stone, 
made into a stiff paste with water, and 
dissolved by gently simmering in a water 
bath. Rub on with a wooden rag, and 
polish with dry whiting and rotten si.one. 
Finish with a leather and dry whiting. 

3. — Copper plates are cleaned by lay- 
ing them near a fire and pouring on them 
some turpentine, and then rubbing them 
with a small, soft brush. 

4, — The cleaning of some copper ob- 
jects with powders or other substances is 
attended with difficulty on account of 
their worked and ornamental surfaces. 
Still, at times, success is complete, by 
means of acids. If the object is greasy, 
the grease must first be removed by a 
hot solution of soda, and then the object 
immersed in clear Avater. The bath de- 
signed for restoring brilliancy is thus 
composed : Nitric acid, 2 parts ; sal am- 
moniac, 1 part ; or else sal ammoniac, 1 
part ; nitric acid, 1 part ; and water, 1 
part. The sal ammoniac is to be dis- 
solved in the water so as to obtain a .sat- 
urated solution. The object sho^vld .ot 
be left immersed in the bath mt t than 
2 seconds, and should afterward be «?insed, 
first in cold water, ..then in hot, soapy 
water, and dried T/ith warm sawdust. 

5. — Make Armenian bole into a paste 
with oleic acid. 

6. — Rotten stone, 1 part ; iron subcar- 
bonate, 3 parts ; lard oil, a sufficient quan- 
tity. 

7. — Iron oxide, 10 parts ; pumice stone, 
32 parts ; oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. 
8. — Soap," cut fine, 16 parts ; precipi- 
tated chalk, 2 parts ; jewelers' rouge, 1 
part ; cream of tartar, 1 part ; magnesium 
carbonate, 1 part ; water, a sufficient 
quantity. Dissolve the soap in the small- 
est quantity of water that will effect so- 
lution over a water bath. Add the other 



[196] 



( Cleaning Firearms ) 



ingredients to the solution while still hot, 
stirring all the time to make sure of com- 
plete homogeneity. Copper tubing, or 
other parts of apparatus that cannot be 
readily cleaned by mechanical means, 
should be well coated with tin. 

Firearms 

1. — A good and simple way of cleaning 
and recoloring the barrels and other metal 
parts of a double-barrel shotgun which 
are quite rusty. Take the barrels from 
the stock and put them in clean cold 
water free from gritty matters. Attach 
the brush to the washing rod and get out 
all adhering pcwder and residues; next 
take tow, and wash until the barrels are 
quite clean. If the parts have rusted, it 
will be necessary to use a little emery 
flour. Dry the barrels with clean cot- 
ton rags, rubbing until the metal feels 

-arm. Plug the ports and muzzles se- 
..irely, then cleanse the outside parts with 
c strong alcoholic solution of caustic pot- 
ash, aided, if necessary, with a little em- 
ery flour and a soft rag. Rinse thor- 
oughly in water, dry thoroughly, warm, 
and while warm rub over every part with 
the following preparation: Pure (dry) 
r^inc chloride, 1 oz. ; nitrate of antimony, 
1/4" oz. ; olive oil, 2 oz. ; well rubbed down 
into a smooth, uniform paste. After half 
an hour's exposure, rub off excess of this 
paste, and polish with clean, soft rags. 
In warming the metal avoid overheating 
it so as to injure the temper. 

2. — In the volunteer service there are 
several fluids used, which are composed 
of either turpentine, naphtha, petroleum, 
benzine or gasoline, about one-third, or 
according to fancy, with machine oil. But 
the instructions to the troops are — a damp 
rag, flannel or tow, is all that is required 
to clp'^n the barrel out; if much water is 
used, .t '' liable to run into the action. 
The but should be raised when washing 
out. Alter washing out and drying, an 
oily rag or flannel to be used. On many 
occasions the oily material will be found 
to be efficacious, without the previous 
use of water. 

^ 3. — ^Easy method of cleaning guns and 
rifles when loaded. If a muzzle-loader, 
stop up the nipple or communication hole 
with a little wax ; or, if a breech-loader, 
insert a cork in the breech rather tightly ; 
next pour some Quicksilver into the bar- 
rel, and put another cork in the muzzle ; 
then proceed to roll it up and down the 
barrel, shaking it about for a few min- 
utes. The mercury ?nd the lead will 
form an amalsram, and leave the barrel 
as clean and free from lead as the first 
day it came out of the shop. The same 



(r'olishing Iron and Steel) 

q.-icksilver can be used repeatedly by 
straining it through wash leather ; for 
the lead will be left behind in the leather, 
and the quicksilver will be again fit lor 
use. 

4. — If the barrels have become leaded, 
wet the tow on the rod with spirits of 
turpentine, as the latter enjoys the prop- 
erty of removing any leading almost 
equally with quicksilver. ParaflBne will 
also be found useful where neither of the 
foregoing can be obtained. Never touch 
the grooves of a rifle with emery, as it 
will dull their edges, and, consequently, 
affect the shooting power. 

5. — Rusty. — a. — Vaseline oil, 4 parts ; 
French turpentine, 1 part ; naphtha, 1 
part. It is sufiicient to thoroughly sat- 
urate the oakum wrapped around the wad 
hook with this mixture and to wipe the 
interior of the barrels a few times. Next, 
rub the barrel stock and system exter- 
nally^ with a moistened brush, and wipe 
the rifle clean with a rag. 

b. — A lubricating oil which it is said 
will clean rust from rifle barrels, and 
also prevent corrosion by nitro powders, 
has the following formula : Kerosene 
(free from acid), 2 oz, ; sperm oil, 1 oz. ; 
oil of turpentine, 1 oz. ; acetone, 1 oz. 
Mix in the order given. Oil of citronella 
or oil of bergamot may be added to dis- 
guise the odor. / 
German Silver, To Polish 

Take 1 lb. of peroxide of iron, pure,, 
and put half of it into a wash basin,, 
pouring on water, and keeping it stirred 
until the basin is nearly full. While the 
water and crocus are in slow motion, 
pour off, leaving grit at the bottom. Re- 
peat this a second time, pouring off into 
another basin. Cleani^e out grit, and do 
the same with the other half. When the 
second lot is poured off the crocus in the 
first will have settled to the bottom ; pour- 
off the water gently, take out the powder, 
dry it, and put both, when washed clear 
of grit, and dried, into a box into which 
dust cannot get. If the silverwork is 
very dirty, rub the mixture of powder and 
oil on with the fingers, and then it will 
be known if any grit is on the work. If 
the work is not very black, take a piece 
of soft chamois leather and rub some 
dry crocus on, and, when well rubbed, 
shake out the leather and let the powder 
fall off that is not used, or rub it off 
with a brush. Do not put down the 
leather in the dust. 
Iron and Steel 

Polishing and Protecting. — a. — Usually, 
the article to be polished is first rubbed 
down with emery of gradually increasing 



[197] 



(Polishing Iron) 



(Polishing Steel) 



fineness, after which the article is moist- 
ened with alcohol or water, and polished 
with Vienna lime, rouge or tin putty. 

b. — Take an ordinary bar of malleable 
iron, in its usual merchantable state, re- 
move the oxide from its surface by the 
application of diluted sulphuric acid, after 
which wash the bar in an alkaline solu- 
tion, then cover the entire bar with oil 
or petroleum. The bar is then ready for 
the chief process. A mufl3e surface is 
so prepared that a uniform, or nearly uni- 
form, heat can be maintained within it, 
and in this furnace the bar is placed. 
Care must be taken that too great a heat 
is not imparted to it, for on this depends 
the success of the operation. When the 
bar approaches a red heat, and when the 
redness is just perceptible, it is a certain 
indication that the proper degree has been 
attained. The bar is then at once re- 
moved and passed through the finishing 
rolls 5 or 6 times, when it will be found 
to have a dark, polished, uniform surface, 
and the appearance of Russian sheet iron. 

c. — Steel bits that are tarnished, but 
not rusty, can be cleaned with rotten 
stone, common hard soap and a woolen 
cloth. 

d. — Finished Surfaces. — Oil is usually 
employed for polishing delicate instru- 
ments, which tends to soil those using 
them. Oil may be advantageously re- 
placed by a mixture of 3 parts of glycer- 
ine and 1 part of alcohol for large sur- 
l^c«^s. When small ones are to be treated, 
pure glycerine can be used. 

2. — Iron. — a. — You cannot keep the 
bright color of polished iron on the hot 
parts of an engine without constant at- 
tention and wiping with engine oil. Ox- 
axlic acid may help the cleaning, but the 
acid left on the bright surface favors oxi- 
dation. For cleaning, use tripoli, rotten 
stone or pulverized pumice stone, with 
engine or kerosene oil. Neglected or dirty 
spots may be removed with a scraper and 
fine emery paper, and afterward rubbed 
with oil. Every part of bright work 
around an engine should be wiped with 
oil. Moisture immediately discolors a 
clean, bright surface. Polish the lubri- 
cator with rotten stone and oil only, and 
only when necessary. Too much polish- 
ing soon makes it look old from wear. 

b.— Bright Polish Like Steel.— Blue 
vitriol, 1% oz. ; borax, 1% oz. ; prussiate 
of potash, 1% oz. ; charcoal, 1% oz. ; 
salt, % pt. Pulverize and dissolve in 
1^ qt. of hot water; add 1% gal. of lin- 
seed oil ; mix well. Bring the iron or 
steel to the proper heat, and cool in this 
solution. 



c. — Brilliant Luster, To Give. — Pulver- 
ized arsenious acid, ly^ dr.; elutriated 
bloodstone, 7^ oz. ; antimony trichloride 
(butter of antimony), 3% oz. Pour over 
these materials 5 pt. of 90% alcohol. Di- 
gest at a gentle heat, shaking frequently. 
When iron is polished with this fluid it 
precipitates upon it a thin film of anti- 
mony and arsenic, which protects the iron 
from oxidation, and also gives it a fine 
appearance. 

3. — Machinery, Tools, etc. — a. — Two or 
three cents' worth of paraflSne, chipped 
fine, are added to 1 1. of pertoleum in a 
stoppered bottle, and during 2 or 3 days, 
from time to time, shaken up until the 
paraffine is dissolved. To apply it, the 
mixture is well shaken, spread upon the 
metal to be cleaned, by means of a woolen 
rag or brush, and on the following day 
rubbed off with a dry woolen rag. 

b. — In a corked bottle, mix 20 parts 
of petroleum with 1 part of paraflSne ; ap- 
ply the mixture by means of a rag or 
brush, and rub well the next morning 
with dry wool. 

c. — Oil of turpentine, 5 parts ; stearine, 
25 parts ; polishing red, 25 parts ; animal 
charcoal, 25 parts; stir into spirit, and 
shake well until a homogeneous liquid 
mass has been obtained. This is applied 
with a brush, and the spirit allowed to 
evaporate. The surface is then rubbed 
with a mixture of 25 parts of red and 
45 parts of animal charcoal. 

4. — Steel. — Glaze Wheels for Finish- 
ing. — For hollow finishing, the following 
wheels are required : A mahogany wheel 
for rough glazing, a mahogany wheel for 
smooth glazing, a mahogany wheel for 
flat finishing : A buff wheel for rough, 
a buff wheel for smooth, a buff wheel for 
finishing. Lastly, a polisher. To make 
the glaze wheels : Get the spindles, and 
point them on each end ; then get a block 
of beech, and wedge it on the steel at 
one end with iron wedges, and turn it 
for the pulley for the band to run on. 
Take two pieces of flat mahogany, and 
glue and screw them together, so that 
the grain of one piece crosses the other, 
to prevent warping. Let it get thoroughly 
dry, and wedge it on the spindle and 
turn it true. The lead wheel is made 
the same way, but wider, and has a groove 
turned in the edge. The wheel is put into 
sand, and a ring of lead run around the 
edge ; it is then turned true. To make 
the buff wheels, proceed as with the 
glaze, but to save expense, pine or deal 
wood will do as well as mahogany, only 
leave it about double the width of the 
glaze, which is about % in. wide by 12 
or 14 in. across. The buff wheels art 



[198] 



(Metal Cleaning) 



(Metal Cleaning) 



covered with glue, and then the leather 
is tacked on with tacks driven in about 
half way, so that they may be easily 
drawn out again. The leather is then 
turned true. The polisher is made the 
same way, but the size of the polisher 
must be a little less than any of the 
other wheels, say about 1 in. The buff 
wheels are dressed by laying on a fine 
thin coat of clear glue and rolling them 
around — No, 1 in superfine corn emery, 
No. 2 in smooth emery, No. 3 by making 
a cake of equal parts of mutton suet, 
beeswax and washed emery ; then- it is 
held on the wheel while it is going 
around. The glaze wheels are dressed 
while using, by mixing a little of the em- 
ery with oil, and putting it on the wheel 
with a stick or the finger. The leather 
of the polisher is not covered with glue, 
but dressed with a mixture of crocus and 
water, not oil. CJare must be taken to 
keep each wheel and substance to them- 
selves ; the work must be carefully wiped 
after each operation, and cleanliness must 
be studied above all things in using the 
polisher, as the slightest grease getting 
on it stops the polishing. 

a. — Polishing. — (1) Use bell-metal pol- 
ishers for arbors, having first brought up 
the surface with oilstone dust and oil and 
soft steel polishers ; for flat pieces, use 
a piece of glass for the oilstone dust, a 
bell-metal block for the sharp red stuff, 
and a white metal block for the fine red 
stuff. The polishing stuff must be well 
mixed up, and kept very clean ; the pol- 
ishers and blocks must be filed to clean 
off the old stuff, and then rubbed over 
with soft bread ; put only a little red 
stuff on the block, and keep working it 
until it is quite dry ; the piece will then 
leave the block quite clean ; use bread to 
clean off the surplus red stuff before using 
the brush. If the piece is scratched, put 
on some more red stuff, which must not 
be too wet, and try again. 

(2) The polish on flat steel pieces in 
fine watchwork is produced with oilstone 
dust, burnt Turkey stone, and a steel pol- 
isher, soft steel, bell metal, and sharp 
stuff, grain tin and glossing stuff. The 
metals are squared with a file, and vary 
in shape according to the work in hand. 

Metals (See also Brass and Copper; 
Iron and Steel; Nickel; Rust; Sil- 
ver; in this chaper) 
1. — The preparation of polishes, sim- 
ple as it seems, is an art, and, like every 
other, requires a certain amount of prac- 
tical experience as well as a knowledge 
of the materials entering into the com- 
position of the polishing mixture used, 



and of their preparation for use. To 
attain a high and uniform grade of pol- 
ish, the materials must be reduced to a 
very fine and uniform powder. One sin- 
gle grain of the material larger or sharp- 
er than the rest will produce scratches 
that interfere with the finish given the 
metal. The substances in general use are 
prepared chalk, rotten stone, tripoli and 
emery. For the finest work, jewelers' 
rouge is employed. Substances like em- 
ery are most useful for the harder met- 
als ; they scratch too much to be used 
to any extent on gold or silver. All should 
be run through a fine sieve before being 
used. 

2. — Cloths, Polishing. — These are un- 
dyed velveteen, in the stage of manufac- 
ture known as "dressed off," They may 
be improved by soaking in a solution of 
ammonia or a saturated solution of hy- 
posulphite of soda, then dried. Polishing 
tissue was thin paper, saturated with am- 
monia solution and dried ; it is now ob- 
solete. 

3, — Jewelers' Polishing Bar, — Refined 
tallow, 80 lb. ; sesquioxide of iron, 16 lb. ; 
oxalic acid, 1 lb. Powder the acid, mix 
with the sesquioxide, and mold with the 
tallow into bars, like soap. The sesqui- 
oxide must be quite free from grit, or it 
may scratch valuable work. It may be 
prepared by calcining equal amounts of 
oxalic acid and iron sulphate in a cru- 
cible for about 15 minutes, with a good 
draught. 

4. — Jewelers' Rouge. — To make sure of 
your jewelers' rouge being free from dust 
and grit, prepare it fresh, as follows : 
Make a solution of iron sulphate (cop- 
peras), and another of oxalic acid. Add 
the latter to the former, as long as it 
throws down a precipitate. Filter off the 
liquid, and wash the residue on the filter 
with repeated charges of water, and dry. 
When dry, place in a suitable container, 
and heat gently. It soon ignites, and 
burns until only an impalpable powder 
is left. This is the polishing material. 
The infusorial earth must be freed from 
sand, grit, etc, and reduced, by grinding, 
to a condition similar to that of the iron 
peroxide. The rotten stone and acid must 
also be powdered. If care and attention 
be given to these details, you can scarcely 
fail to get good results. 

5. — Liquid Polish. — Sometimes it is de- 
sirable to have a liquid polish for metals. 
Properly speaking there can be no such 
thing, as the polishing process depends, 
as we have already pointed out, on th'^ 
attrition of fine particles of some sub- 
stance a little harder than the metal. The 
powders used can be, and frequently are. 



[199] 



(Metal Polishes) 



(Metal Polishes) 



employed in a moist condition, and they 
may be suspended in water by shaking, 
A mixture of whiting and ammonia water 
is frequently used for cleaning metals, the 
ammonia acting as a solvent of some 
kinds of dirt. It is best, however, to re- 
move grease, etc., before beginning the 
polishing process, and the effects of strong 
alkalies on the hands are not pleasant. 
It is true that the acids, by their chemi- 
cal action, remove rust and dirt from 
metallic surfaces without the aid of any 
of these hard, fine powders, but they gen- 
erally remove also a portion of the met- 
als themselves each time they are applied. 
A weak solution in water of any of the 
strong mineral acids, or even of citric 
or oxalic acid, might be found useful in 
a number of instances, but could not be 
recommended for general use. 

a. — Prepared chalk, 2 parts ; water of 
ammonia, 2 parts ; water, sufficient to 
make 8 parts. The ammonia saponifies 
the grease usually present. It must be 
pointed out that the alkali present makes 
the preparation somewhat undesirable to 
handle, as it will affect the skin if al- 
lowed too free contact. 

b. — Malt vinegar, 4 gal. ; lemon juice, 1 
gal. ; paraffine oil, 1 gal. ; kieselguhr, 7 
lb. ; powdered bath brick, 3 lb. ; oil of 
lemon, 2 oz. Well mix. 

c. — Kieselguhr, 56 lb. ; paraffine oil, 3 
gal. ; alcohol, 1% gal. ; camphorated 
spirit, % gal. ; turpentine oil, % gal. ; li- 
quid ammonia fort., 3 pt. Pour the am- 
monia into the oil, alcohol and turpentine, 
add the camphorated spirit, and mix with 
the kieselguhr. To prevent setting, keep 
well agitated during filling. The color naay 
be turned red by using a little sesquioxide 
of iron and less kieselguhr. Apply with 
a cloth, and, when dry, use another clean 
cloth, or a brush. 

d. — Precipitated chalk, 30 parts ; am- 
monia water, 30 parts ; alcohol, 45 parts ; 
water, 200 parts. For polishing silver 
and other metals. 

e. — Dried sodium carbonate, 1 part ; 
soap, 4 parts ; flour of emery, 25 parts ; 
water, enough to make a paste. 

f. — Prepared chalk, 8 oz. ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 2 oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. ; water of 
ammonia, 2 dr. 

g. — Peroxide of iron (jewelers' rouge) 
20 parts ; rotten stone, 20 parts ; infuso- 
rial earth, 20 parts ; oxalic acid, 1 part ; 
palm oil, sufiicient ; vaseline, sufficient ; oil 
of mirbane, sufficient to perfume. Pulver- 
ize, and mix, so proportioning the palm 
oil and vrseline that you have a liquid 
sufficiently "thick" to hold the powders 
in suspension. 

h. — Naphtha.— (1) A mixture of equal 



parts of sperm, oil, paraffine oil and naph- 
tha is said to make a good cleaner for 
metals, and is a lubricant as well. 

(2) Venice tripoli, 1 lb.; Spanish 
whiting, 1 lb. ; powdered pumice, 8 oz. ; 
kerosene, 3 oz. ; crude oleic acid, 3 oz. ; 
crude petroleum jelly to make a paste. 
Naphtha might be used in place of the 
kerosene. When naphtha or benzine is 
used there is always more or less dan- 
ger from fire. They evaporate rapidly 
on exposure to the air, and unless the 
polish containing them is used at once, 
or is, kept in a tightly closed container, 
they will probably be entirely lost. 

i. — Star Metal Polish. — Powdered trip- 
oli, 3 oz. ; tartaric acid, 1 dr. ; powdered 
pumice, % oz. ; gasoline, 14 fl.oz. Shake 
well, and apply with a woolen cloth until 
the dirt is removed ; then polish with 
chamois. 

j. — Tripoli, 9 kgm. ; infusorial earth, 9 
kgm. ; Japanese wax, 5 kgm. ; olein, 12 
kgm. ; benzine, 90 kgm. 

k. — Fulmenol. — Chalk, 100 kgm. ; olein, 
64 kgm. ; ammonia water, 38 kgm. ; alco- 
hol, denatured, 49 kgm. ; benzine, 49 kgm. 

1. — Rotten stone, 16 av.oz. ; paraffine, 
8 av.oz.; kerosene (coal oil), 16 fl.oz.; 
oil of mirbane, enough to perfume. Melt 
the paraffine, incorporate the rotten stone, 
add the kerosene and the oil of mirbane 
when cold. 

m. — Oxalic acid, % av.oz. ; rotten stone, 
10 av.oz.; kerosene (coal oil), 30 fl.oz.; 
paraffine, 2 av.oz. Pulverize the oxalic 
acid, and mix it with the rotten stone; 
melt the paraffine, add to it the kerosene, 
and incorporate the powder ; when cool, 
add oil of mirbane or lavender, to per- 
fume. 

6.— 'Pastes and Pomades. — a. — Melt 5 
lb. of lard or yellow vaseline, and mix 
with 1 lb. of fine rouge. 

b. — Melt together 2 lb. of palm oil and 
2 lb. of vaseline, and stir in 1 lb. of rouge,. 
y2 lb. of tripoli and 1 oz. of oxalic acid'. 

c. — Buff Color. — Petroleum Jelly, 42 
lb. ; refined paraffine wax, 14 lb. ; pow- 
dered bath brick, 14 lb. ;• powdered pipe- 
clay, 14 lb. ; powdered pumice, 2 lb. ; yel- 
low ocher, 2 lb. ; oleic acid, 1 lb. ; oil of 
cassia, 3 oz. Melt the wax and jelly, 
stir in the others and grind as before. 

d. — Putz Pomades. — The Journal der 
Goldschmiedekunste gives the first 3 for- 
mulae following for polishing pomades : 

(1) Anhydrous sodium carbonate, 5 
parts ; tallow soap, 20 parts ; levigated 
emery, 100 parts ; water, 100 parts. Mix, 
put on the water bath, and heat, under 
constant agitation, until a smooth, homo- 
geneous paste has been obtained. 



[200] 



(Metal Polishes) 



(Nickel Polishing) 



(2) Jewelers' rouge, 1 part ; petrola- 
tum, 1 part; oil of mirbane, q. s. to per- 
fume. Mix intimately. 

(3) Oil of turpentine, 1 part; levi- 
gated emery, finest, 1 part ; jewelers' 
■/rouge, 2 parts ; petrolatum, 2 parts ; oil 
of mirbane, q. s. Rub up together to a 
homogeneous pomade. 

> (4) Rotten stone, 1 part; iron subcar- 
bonate, 3 parts ; lard oil, enough. 

(5) Iron oxide, 10 parts; pumice stone, 
32 parts ; oleic acid, enough. 

(6) Soap, cut fine, 16 parts; precipi- 
tated chalk, 2 parts ; jewelers' rouge, 1 
part ; cream of tartar, 1 part ; water, 
enough. Dissolve the soap in the small- 
est quantity of water over a water bath ; 
add the other ingredients to the solution 
while still hot, stirring all the time, to 
make sure of complete homogeneity ; pour 
the mass into a box with shallow sides, 
and afterward cut into cubes. 

(7) Petrolatum, 42 parts; refined par- 
affine, 14 parts ; powdered bath brick, 14 
parts ; powdered pipeclay, 14 parts ; pow- 
dered pumice, 2 parts ; oleic acid, 1 part. 

(8) Dried sodium carbonate, 5 parts; 
soap, 20 parts ; levigated emery, 100 
parts ; water, 100 parts. Mix, put on a 
water bath, and heat, under constant agi- 
tation, until a smooth, homogeneous paste 
has been obtained. 

(9) Emery flour, 50 parts; jewelers' 
rouge, 50 parts ; mutton suet, 40 parts ; 
oleic acid, 40 parts. Melt the suet and 
oleic acid together over a water bath, and 
when thoroughly mixed remove from the 
fire ; when cooled, but still soft, add the 
powders, and rub until they are evenly 
distributed throughout the mass. 

7. — Powders. — a. — Kieselguhr, 80 parts ; 
tin oxide, 30 parts ; pipeclay, 30 parts ; 
tartaric acid, 3 parts. 

b. — Kieselguhr, 28 parts ; pipeclay, 10 
parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 3 parts ; fer- 
ric oxide, 2 parts. 

c. — Chalk, 10 av.oz. ; white bole, 4 
av.oz. ; lead carbonate, 5 av.oz. ; magne- 
sium carbonate, 1 av.oz. ; iron oxide, 1 
av.oz. This mixture is best adapted to 
brass and copper. 

d. — Calcined magnesia, 8 av.oz. ; jew- 
elers' rouge, 8 av.oz. This mixture is 
recommended for polishing gold ; it should 
be used dry. 

e. — Magnesium carbonate, 4 av.oz. ; 
chalk, 4 av.oz. ; jewelers' rouge, 7 av. oz. 

f. — Palm oil, 16 av.oz. ; petrolatum, 16 
av.oz. ; jewelers' rouge, 8 av.oz. ; tripoli, 
7 av.oz. ; oxalic acid, 160 gr. _ 

g. — Hard Metals. — Science, Arts^ and 
Nature gives the following : Infusorial 
earth, 80 parts ; tin oxide, 30 parts ; pipe- 



clay, 30 piirts ; tartaric acid, 3 parts. 
Powder and mix. 

h. — Kieselguhr, 28 parts; pipeclay, 10 
parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 3 parts ; fer- 
ric oxide, 2 parts. 

i. — Kieselguhr, 42 lb. ; putty powder, 14 
lb. ; pipeclay, 14 lb. ; tartaric acid, 1^ 
lb. Powder the acid, mix well with the 
others. This is styled "free from re- 
cury, poisonous mineral acids, alkalies, or 
grit." It may be tinted with 12 oz. of 
oxide of iron, if desired. 

8. — Preserving the Polish on Bright 
Surfaces. — Take 2% oz. of rosin and 
from 15 to 20 oz. of lard ; melt slowly 
together, stirring until cool. The mix- 
ture is used when semi-fiuid. It may be 
thinned by coal oil or benzine. Put on 
a bright surface, even thinly, it will pre- 
serve the polish, and it can be readily 
rubbed off. 

9. — Soaps. — a. — Liquid curd soap, 20 to 
25 lb., intimately mixed with about 30 
lb. of fine chalk and % lb. of Venetian 
red. 

b. — Liquid cocoanut-oil soap, 26 lb., 
mixed with 12 lb. of tripoli and 1 lb. each 
of alum, tartaric acid and white lead. 

c. — Melted cocoanut oil, 25 lb., saponi- 
fied with 12 lb. of soda lye of 38 to 40° 
B., after which 3 lb. of rouge, 3 lb. of 
water and 2 oz. of ammonia are crutched 
in. 

d. — Powdered pipeclay, 112 lb. ; tallow 
soap, 16 lb. ; tartaric acid, 1% lb. Grind 
until pasty ; afterward press into blocks 
by the machine. 

e. — Levigated flint, 60 lb. ; whiting, 52 
lb. ; tallow, 20 lb. ; caustic soda, 5 lb. ; 
water, 2 gal. Dissolve the soda m the 
water and add to the tallow ; when sa- 
ponified, stir in the others, pressing as 
before. 

Nickel 

1. — To clean nickelplated objects, dip 
them for a second or two in a 2% solutior 
of sulphuric acid, rinse in running water, 
and finally with a mixture, in equal 
parts, of distilled water and alcohol. Dry 
in sawdust. 

2. — Polish. — a. — Ordinary rouge is used 
by niekelplaters as a polish. 

b. — Another preparation, said to be an 
excellent one, is made by mixing % oz. 
of quicksilver and 2 oz. of chalk. To 
use, add a small quantity of alcohol, and 
polish with a chamois skin. These pol- 
ishes do not restore the plating, however, 
and if the nickeling be worn off, the only 
thing to do is to have the article re- 
plated. 

c. — Use chalk mixed with tallow. 



[201] 



(Pewter) 



(Rust) 



d. — Equal parts of precipitated iron 
carbonate and prepared chalk, or take 
quicksilver with chalk, % oz., and pre- 
pared chalk, 2 oz., and mix them. When 
used, add a small quantity of alcohol, and 
rub with chamois leather. 

e. — ^^Rouge with a little flesh lard or 
lard oil, on a wash leather or piece of 
buckskin. Rub the bright parts, using 
as little of the rouge and oil as possible; 
wipe off with a clean rag slightly oiled. 
Repeat the wiping every day, and polish- 
ing as often as necessary. 

3. — Rust, Protection. — In putting away 
a bicycle for the winter, every part should 
be thoroughly cleaned from dirt, the run- 
ning parts duly oiled, and the bright parts 
wiped with a mixture of vaseline and 
paraflBne (2 parts of vaseline to % part of 
paraffine), to which add i/^ pt. of finely 
ground quicklime by heating and stirring ; 
apply warm, by wiping all the nickel 
parts, and wrapping them in paper which 
has been coated on one side by the mix- 
ture, very thin, which will keep off rust 
and dampness. The japanned parts and 
saddle should also be nicely covered with 
wrapping paper to keep off dust, which 
injures the japan by long contact. 

4. — Rust, Removal. — First cover the 
objects with grease, and in 3 or 4 days 
rub them with a rag soaked in ammonia. 
This will dissolve the rust without at- 
tacking the nickel. If the rust resists 
this treatment, apply a little chlorhydric 
acid, and immeditely afterward rub with 
a cloth, so that the nickeling may not be 
affected. Then wash, dry well, and 
polish. 

Pewter Articles 

The cleansing of articles of this metal 
is accomplished with hot lye of wood 
ashes and fine sand. Pour the hot lye 
upon the tin, throw on sand, and rub 
with a hard woolen rag, hat felt, or 
whisk, until all particles of dirt have 
^een dissolved. To polish pewter plates, 
it is well to have the turner make simi- 
lar wooden forms fitting the plates, and 
to rub them clean this way. Next they 
are rinsed off with clean water and placed 
on a table with a clean linen cover, on 
which they are left to dry without being 
touched otherwise spots will appear.^ This 
scouring is not necessary so often if the 
pewter is rubbed off with wheat bran 
after use and cleaned perfectly. New 
pewter is polished with a paste of whit- 
ing and brandy, of which a little is used, 
rubbing the dishes with it until the mass 
"becomes dry. 



Rust 

Metals. — 1. — Drawing Instruments, Re- 
moving Rust from. — a. — Use fine emery 
paper and crocus cloth. 

b, — Mix 10 parts of tin putty, 8 parts 
of prepared buck's horn and 25 pans ot 
90% aclohol to a paste. Cleanse the ar- 
ticles with this, and finally rub with soft 
blotting paper. 

2, — Gun Barrels, Grease for Anointing, 
to Prevent Rust. — Make an ointment of 
corrosive sublimate and lard. It is said 
that this will protect gun barrels from 
rust on the seashore. 

3. — Iron and Steel, Rust Preventives. 
— a. — Caoutchouc oil is said to have 
proved efl5cient in preventing rust, and' 
to have been adopted by the German ^ 
army. It only requires to be spread with 
a piece of flannel, in a very thin layer, 
over the metallic surface and allowed to 
dry up. Such a coating will afford se- 
curity against all atmospheric influences 
and will not show any cracks under the 
microscope after a year's standing. To 
remove it, the article has simply to be 
treated with caoutchouc oil again, and 
washed after 12 to 24 hours. 

b. — A solution of india-rubber in ben- 
zine has been used for years as a coating 
for steel, iron and lead, and has been 
found a simple means of keeping them 
from oxidizing. It can be easily applied 
with a brush, and is as easily rubbed off. 
It should be made about the consistency 
of cream. 

c. — All steel articles can be perfectly 
preserved from rust by putting a lump of 
freshly burnt lime in the drawer or case 
in which they are kept. If the things 
are to be moved (as a gun in its case, 
for instance), put the lime in a muslin 
htrg. This is especially valuable for speci- 
mens of iron when fractured, for in a 
moderately dry .place the lime will not 
want renewing for many years, as it is 
capable of absorbing a large quantity of 
moisture. Articles in use should be placed 
in a box nearly filled with thoroughly 
pulverized slaked lime. Before using them 
rub well with a woolen cloth. 

d, — The following mixture forms an ex- 
cellent brown coating for protecting iron 
and steel from rust : Dissolve 2 parts of 
crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts of an- 
timony chloride and 1 part of tannin in 
4 parts of water, and aoply with a sponge 
or rag, and let dry. Then another coat 
of the paint is applied, and again another, 
if necessary, until the color becomes as 
dark as desired. When dry, it is washed 
with water, allowed to dry again, and 
the surface polished with boiled linseed 



[202] 



(Rust) 



(Rust) 



oil. The antimony chloride must be as 
nearly neutral as possible. 

e. — Put about 1 qt. of fresh slaked lime, 
y2 lb. of washing soda and % lb. of soft 
soap in a bucket ; add sufficient water to 
cover the articles ; put in the tools as 
soon as possible after use, and wipe them 
up next morning, or let them remain un- 
til wanted. 

f, — Soft soap, with about half its 
weight of pearlash; 1 oz. of the mixture 
in about 1 gal. of boiling water. This 
is in every-day use in most engineers' 
shops in the drip cans used for turning 
long articles bright in wrought iron and 
steel. The work, though constantly moist, 
does not rust, and bright nuts are im- 
mersed in it for days till wanted, and 
retain their polish. 

g. — Melt slowly together 6 or 8 oz. of 
lard to 1 oz. of rosin, stirring till cool; 
when it is semi-fluid it is ready for use. 
If too thick, it may be further let down 
by coal oil or benzine. Rubbed on bright 
surfaces, ever so thinly, it preserves the 
polish effectually, and may be readily 
rubbed off. 

h. — To protect metals from oxidation — 
polished iron or steel, for instance — the 
requisite is to exclude air and moisture 
from the actual metallic surface ; v/here- 
fore, polished tools are usually kept in 
wrappings of oiled cloth and brown paper, 
and, thus protected, they will preserve a 
spotless face for an unlimited time. When 
these metals come to be, of necessity, ex- 
posed, in being converted to use, it is 
necessary to protect them by means of 
some permanent dressing, and boiled lin- 
seed oil, which forms a lasting film or 
covering as it dries on, is^one of the best 
preservatives, if not the best. But in 
order to give it body it should be thick- 
ened by the addition of some pigment, 
and the very best — because the most con- 
genial — of pigment is the ground oxide of 
the same metal ; or, in plain words, rust- 
ed iron reduced to an impalpable powder, 
for the dressing of iron or steel, which 
thus forms the pigment of red oxide paint. 

i. — Slake a piece of quicklime with just 
water enough to cause it to crumble, in 
a covered pot, and while hot add tallow 
to it and work into a paste, and use this 
to cover over bright work ; it can be 
easily wiped off. 

j. — Olmstead's varnish is made by melt- 
ing 2 oz. of rosin in 1 lb. of fresh, sweet 
lard, melting the rosin first and then add- 
ing the lard, and mixing thoroughly. This 
is applif'd to the metal, which should be 
warm, if possible, and perfectly cleaned ; 
it is afterward rubbed off. This has been 
well proved and tested for many years, 



and is particularly well suited for plan- 
ished and Russian iron surfaces, which 
a slight rust is apt to injure very seri- 
ously. 

k. — Use ferroline or white zapon lac- 
quer. 

1. — Mix whiting and linseed oil togeth- 
er to form a paste. Put a coat on the 
iron. It is easily removed, and will pre- 
vent rusting. 

m. — Thick lubricating petroleum, or 
solid paraffine, applied to the slightly 
warmed iron, is one of the best preserva- 
tives ; in some cases a transparent var- 
nish of copal or shellac is preferable. The 
main point is to clean the iron properly 
before the application, from all traces of 
rust, by means of brushing and a min- 
eral acid, to wash it well, and to neu- 
tralize all remaining traces of acid with 
potash lye, or with lime or some other 
alkali ; then clean and dry thoroughly, 
and apply your oil, paraffine or varnish. 

n. — Boiled linseed oil will keep polished 
tools from rusting if it is allowed to dry 
on them. Common sperm oil will pre- 
vent them from rusting for a short pe- 
riod. A coat of copal varnish is fre- 
quently applied to polished tools exposed 
to the weather. Woolen materials are 
the best for wrappers for metals. 

o. — Iron and steel goods of all descrip- 
tions are kept free from rust by the fol- 
lowing : Dissolve % oz. of camphor m 
1 lb. of hog's lard, take off the scum, 
and mix as much black lead as will give 
the mixture an iron color. Iron and 
steel, and machinery of all kinds, rubbed 
over with this mixture, and left with it 
on for 24 hours, and then rubbed with 
a linen cloth, will keep clean for months. 
If the machinery is for exportation, it 
should be kept thickly coated with this 
during the voyage. 

p. — Antimony chloride, 9 parts ; crys- 
tallized iron chloride, 9 parts ; tannin, 
41/^ parts, in 18 parts of water. Apply 
with a sponge or rag, let it dry, apply 
again, if necessary. This mixture forms, 
a brown coating on the article. When 
dry, wash with water ; let it dry, then 
polish with boiling linseed oil. 

q. — A compound of grease and zinc fil- 
ings is found to be an excellent prevent- 
ative against rust for iron bolts inserted 
in wood. It is used to line the bolt hole. 

r. — A correspondent sends us the fol- 
lowing suggestions : "I have tried many 
things, but found nothing better than 
boiled linseed oil to protect instruments 
and tools (files, saws, guns, etc.) from 
rusting. It even works best with a ket- 
tle used for heating water for bathing. 
Wipe the metal with a cloth dipped in. 



[203] 



(Kust) 



(Rust) 



the oil, and let it dry, which will re- 
quire only a few minutes. If it is un- 
necessary to have the metal bright and 
shining, you need not scour it before the 
application of the oil; this will combine 
with the rust, and form a firm, durable 
coating." 

s. — Rub over with a mixture of tallow 
or lard and thick white-lead paint. 

t. — To keep iron goods of any kind, and 
especially those parts of machines which 
are made of steel or iron, from rusting, 
take % oz, o+" powdered camphor, and 
melt it before the fire in 1 lb. of good 
lard. To give it a dark color, add as 
much fine black lead as is necessary to 
produce the desired effect. Clean the 
ironwork, and smear it over with this 
preparation. After this it should be al- 
lowed to remain untouched for 24 hours, 
when the grease should be removed by 
wiping the iron work with a soft cloth. 

u. — Vaseline is an excellent preserva- 
tive. Buy by the can, and apply with 
a brush. 

4. — Iron, Protection from Rust. — a. — 
Otto Hering, of Berlin, has lately pat- 
ented a method for producing basic oils 
to protect iron from rust. The oil is 
made to contain in solution certain basic 
substances. Either the oil (fatty or min- 
eral) may be saturated with ammonia gas 
at the ordinary temperature, or organic 
bases can be dissolved in it. In practice, 
a combination of these two plans is ad- 
visable, the ammonia gas being put into 
the oil after the organic bases. An ad- 
vantage claimed for this new rust pro- 
tector is that it contains no moisture, and 
is mixed with bodies able to check any 
tendency to rust formation at the outset. 

b. — Barff's Process. — A patented proc- 
ess employed for the protection of the 
surfaces of iron from rust, effected by 
artificially coating them with a film of 
magnetic oxide. The iron is first heated 
to redness, and steam passed over it. The 
iron decomposes the steam, liberating oxy- 
gen, which latter immediately attaaks the 
iron, forming magnetic or black oxide, 
FesO,. 

c. — Bright Iron Articles. — The medium 
in question is produced from the follow- 
ing substances : Zinc white, 30 kgm. ; 
lampblack, 2 kgm. ; tallow, 7 kgm. ; vase 
line, 1 kgm. ; olive oil, 3 kgm. ; varnish 
1 1. Boil together % hour and add % 1. 
of benzine and % 1- of turpentine, stir- 
ring the mass carefully and boiling for 
some time. The finished pastelike sub- 
stance can be rearlilv removed with a rag 
without the use of solvents. 

d. — Unflerground Iron. — Cotton-seed or 
linseed oils, 1 lb.; coal tar, 1 lb.; sul- 



phur, 1 lb. ; heat separately ; mix thor- 
oughly, and heat to 300° F. for about 1 
hour, at the end of which time it becomes 
pasty. Heat the metal to which it is 
applied. 

5. — Iron, Removal of Rust. — a. — A 
simple and effective way of cleaning rust- 
ed iron articles, no matter how badly 
f they are rusted, consists in attaching a 
piece of ordinary zinc to the articles, and 
then letting them lie in water to which 
a little sulphuric acid is added. They \ 
should be left immersed several days, or i 
a week, until the rust has entirely dis- j 
appeared, the time depending on how ^ 
deeply they are rusted. If there is much ] 
rust, a little sulphuric acid should be 
added occasionally. The essential part 
of the process is that the zinc must be 
in good electrical contact with the iron. 
A good way is to twist an iron wire tight- 
ly around the object, and connect this 
with the zinc. Besides the simplicty of 
this process, it has the great advantage 
that the iron itself is not attacked in the 
least so long as the zinc is in good elec- 
trical contact with it. Domestic Jiingi- 
neering says that when there is only a 
little rust, a galvanized-iron wire wrapped 
around the object will take the place of 
the zinc, provided the acid is not too 
strong. The articles will come out a 
dark gray or black color, and should then 
be washed thoroughly and oiled. The 
method is specially applicable to objects 
with sharp corners or edges, or to files 
and other articles on which buffing wheels 
ought not to be used. The rusted iron 
and the zinc make a short-circuited bat- 
tery, the action of which reduces the rust 
back to iron, this action continuing as 
long as any rust is left. 

b. — Iron articles thickly coated with 
rust may be cleaned by allowing them to 
remain in a nearly saturated solution of 
chloride of tin from 12 to 14 hours. 

c. — Rust remover : Ground pumice, 30 
grams ; oleic acid, 20 grams ; tallow 2 
grams ; paraffine, 4 grams. The last 
three ingredients afe melted together and 
the powdered pumice is slowly stirred in. 

6. — Nickelplated Articles, To Remove 
Rust from. — Cover the stains with oil or 
grease for a few days, and then remove 
the rust by rubbing with a little ammo- 
nia. If this does not remove the rust, 
try very dilute hydrochloric acid. When 
dry, polish with tripoli or whiting. 

7. — Rust Prevention in General. — a. — 
Melt together 125 parts of lard and 20 
parts of camphor, to which a little graph- 
ite is added. After thorough cleaning, 
the mass is rubbed on and allowed to re- 
main 24 hours. 



[204] 



(Rust) 



(Rust) 



b. — A mixture of petrolatum and kero- 
sene oil is said to be an excellent appli- 
cation for protecting the surface of the 
metal. 

c. — For polished metal use the follow- 
ing: Rosin, 35 parts; talc, in powder, 
500 parts; lard, 250 parts; yellow wax, 
130 parts ; olive oil, 130 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 130 parts. Mix the rosin, lard, 
wax and oil, and melt at a low tempera- 
ture ; when melted, stir in the talc, and 
after removing from the fire add the tur- 
pentine, with constant stirring. 

d. — Camphor, ^^ oz. ; dissolve in melted 
lard, 1 lb. ; take off the scum, and mix in 
as much black lead as will give it an 
iron color ; clean machinery, and smear 
with compound ; after 24 hours remove 
with a soft linen cloth. 

8. — Rust Removal in General. — a. — 
Cover the metal with sweet oil, well 
rubbed in, and allow to stand for 48 
bours ; smear with oil, applied li.eely with 
a feather or piece of cotton wool, after 
rubbing the steel ; then rub with unslaked 
lime, reduced to as fine a powder as pos- 
sible. 

b. — Immerse the article to be cleaned 
for a few minutes until all dirt and 
rust is taken off, in a strong solution of 
potassium cyanide, say about % oz. in 
a. wineglassful of water ; take out, and 
clean it with a toothbrush, with some 
paste composed of potassium cyanide, Cas- 
tile soap, whiting and water, mixed into 
a paste of about the consistency of thick 
cream. 

9. — Steel, Removal of Rust. — a. — 
The following solution according to the 
National Druggist, may be applied by 
means of a brush, after having removed 
any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry 
cloth : Stannic chloride, 100 grams, ar-^ 
dissolved in 1 1. of water; this solution 
is next added to one containing 2 grams 
of tartaric acid dissolved in 1 1. of water, 
and, finally, adding 20 c.cm. of indigo 
solution diluted with 2 1. of water. After 
allowing the solution to act upon the 
stain for a few seconds it is rubbed clean, 
firs^ with a moist cloth, later with a dry 
cloth. To restore the polish, use is made 
of silver sand and jewelers' rouge. 

b. — Immerse the article to be cleaned 
for a few minutes until all dirt and rust 
are taken off, in a strong solution of 
cyanide of potassium, say about i/^ oz. in 
a wineglassful of water; take out, and 
clean it with a tooth brush, with some 
paste composed of cyannide of potassium, 
Castile soap, whiting and water ; these 
last are mix«d in a paste about the con- 
sistency of thick cream. 



c. — To remove rust from small hollow 
castings, dip in dilute sulphuric acid (1 
part of commercial acid to 10 parts of 
water). Wash in hot lime water, and 
dry in a tumbler in dry sawdust. 

d. — Immerse the articles in kerosene 
oil; allow them to remain for some time. 
This will loosen the rust so it will come 
off easily. 

e. — To remove rust from steel, cover 
the metal with sweet oil, well rubbed in ; 
48 hours afterward rub with finely pul- 
verized unslaked lime. 

f. — Cover the rusted part with oil or 
fat, let it remain 3 hours, then wipe off 
with a cloth ; take 2 dr. of caustic potash 
and 4 oz. of opodeldoc ; rub on the mix- 
ture, and let it remain 10 minutes ; rub 
off with a dry cloth. Or, cover the rusted 
parts with sweet oil, well rubbed in, and 
next day cover with finely powdered un- 
slaked lime ; polish with this until the 
rust disappears. Or, take % oz. of em- 
ery powder, 1 oz. of soft soap, mixed, 
and well rub in. 

g. — Whiting, by weight, 9 parts; oil 
soap, by weight, 6 parts ; cyanide of po- 
tassium, by weight, 5 parts ; water, by 
weight, 60 parts. Dissolve the soap in 
the water, over the fire, and add the 
cyanide ; then, little by little, add the 
whiting. If the compound is too thick, 
which may be due either to the whiting or 
the soap employed, add a little water un- 
til a paste is made which can be run 
into an iron or wooden mold. This will 
remove rust from steel and give it a good 
polish. 

h. — Rosin, 35 parts ; powdered talc, 500 
parts ; lard, 250 parts ; yellow wax, 130 
parts ; olive oil, 130 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 130 parts. Mix the rosin, lard, wax 
and oil, and melt at a low temperature. 
When melted, stir in the talc, and, after 
removing from the fire, add the turpen- 
tine, with constant stirring. 

i. — Rust Paper for Fine Steel. — Wash 
some pumice in water, powder it fine, 
and mix linseed-oil varnish with the pow- 
der. Apply several coatings of this mix- 
ture with a brush, to good, firm paper, 
and after the paper has been dried in the 
air pass it between smoothing rollers. The 
following cleaning powder is also recom- 
mended : Mix 16 parts by weight of tin 
putty with 8 parts of prepared harts- 
horn, and rub the mixture to a paste 
with 32 parts of alcohol. The mixture 
can then be used for cleaning steel arti- 
cles. Very rusty steel and iron articles 
should first be washed with hydrochloric 
acid, diluted with an equal quantity of 
water, and afterward with pure water, 
then dried, coated with oil, left for a few 



[205] 



(Rust) 



(Silver. Zinc) 



days, and finally cleaned with the clean- 
ing powder already described. Finely 
powdered emery, with a little olive oil, 
can also be recommended. 

10. — Steel Instruments, Small, To Keep 
from Rusting. — a. — Clean frequently ; 
after using, clean with dry chamois leath- 
er and wipe off with an oiled rag. 

b. — For this purpose the Lancet con- 
fidently recommends a mixture of equal 
parts of carbolic acid and olive oil, 
smeared over the surface of the instru- 
ments. This plan is much used by medi- 
cal officers in the navy, and is found to 
preserve the polish and brightness of the 
steel, however moist and warm the cli- 
mate may be. 

11.— Steel Wire, To Protect from Rust. 
— Try the following : Dissolve % oz. of 
camphor in 2 oz. of 90% alcohol, and 
mix this with 2 pt. of fine sperm oil. Al- 
low the wire to remain in contact with 
this mixture, heated to 180" F., for half 
an hour; then rub off excess with a soft 
cotton cloth. 

12. — Stoves, To Prevent from Rusting. 
— Apply kerosene with a cloth. This will 
prevent stoves from rusting during the 
summer. Also an excellent material to 
apply to all iron tools used about a farm. 

13. — Tools, To Keep from Rusting. — 
a. — Put % lb. of soft soap in a pail and 
add 1 pt. of freshly slaked lime ; suffi- 
cient water to cover the articles. Place 
the tools in this mixture as soon as pos- 
sible after they are used. Wipe them the 
next morning. 

b. — Apparatus for Coating Laboratory 
Tools. — Metallic Tools and other articles, 
particularly those consisting of iron or 
steel, which are used in laboratories or 
other workshops where acid vapors are of 
frequent occurrence, may be protected 
from rust with a black shining coat, 
which resists acids, and is but little af- 
fected even by a low red heat, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Have a sheet-iron box 
large enough to hold all the tools, etc., 
to be coated, and provided with a false 
bottom of wire netting. Underneath this 
is placed a layer of crushed coal (black- 
smith's coal) about 1 cm. deep; then 
place the tools, which must be entirely 
free from rust, clean and polished, upon 
the wire net. The box is then covered 
and set on a strong fire, which causes the 
coal to give off tarry constituents, and 
the heat continued until the bottom of 
the box is at red heat. When all evo- 
lution, of gas has ceased the box is al- 
lowed to become cold, and the tools are 



taken out, and will be found covered with 
a beautiful glossy coat. Tongs, shears, 
pincers, etc., so coated, keep in good con- 
dition for months, even in places where 
the air is constantly mixed with acid va- 
pors. 

Silver 

1. — In cleaning silver plate, or any pol- 
ished metallic surface, it is very essential 
to keep the polishing material, as well as 
the rubbing cloths, chamois, etc., in a 
close box, where they cannot be contam- 
inated with dust. One single grain of 
sand may produce a scratch that hours 
of faithful labor cannot obliterate. When 
this happens the injured article must be 
sent to the jeweler to have the scratch 
burnished out. 

2. — Silver articles discolored by sul- 
phureted hydrogen may be cleaned by 
rubbing them with a boiling saturated so- 
lution of borax. Another good prepara- 
tion is a solution of caustic potash with 
some bits of metallic zinc. 

3. — Ammonium carbonate, 1 oz. ; water, 
4 oz. ; Paris white, 16 oz. ; mix well, and 
apply by means of soft leather. 

4. — Rouge (very fine) and prepared 
chalk, equal parts ; use dry. 

5. — Whiting (fine), 2 parts; white ox- 
ide of tine, 1 part; calcined hartshorn, 1 
part. 

6. — A fresh concentrated solution of 
hyposulphite of soda will dissolve at once 
the coat of sulphide of silver, which is 
the cause of the blackness produced by 
mustard, eggs, etc., or anything contain- 
ing sulphur. 

7. — Egg Stains. — Rub with common 
salt. A pinch taken between the thumb 
and finger, and rubbed on the spot with 
the end of the finger, will usually remove 
the darkest egg stain. 

Zinc 

1. — To clean zinc, mix 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid with 12 parts of water ; dip 
the zinc into it for a few seconds, then 
rub with a cloth. 

2. — Zinc articles, if small, can be 
cleaned by being pickled in hydrochloric 
acid with water added, till the articles are 
nicely cleaned, in about 3 minutes, with- 
out being too strongly attacked, then 
washed and dried. Large articles like re- 
frigerators are cleaned by being rubbed 
with a swab dipped in raw spirits, then 
washed with water, and finished with 
whiting. 



[206] 



CHAPTER IV. 



COLORING OF METALS 



CLEANING, DIPPING AND PICK- 
LING 
Articles may be cleansed from dirt by 
washing with water and brushing with 
white sand, pumice, whiting, etc. Grease 
and fatty matter, as well as lacquer on 
old work, may be best removed by boil- 
ing in a hot solution of caustic potash or 
soda, contained in a cast-iron pot. After 
boiling for some time they should be re- 
moved, and, if not perfectly clean, it 
may be necessary to scour with fine sand, 
swill in water, and again suspend in the 
solution. 

Aluminum 

Articles of aluminum are cleaned in a 
very dilute solution of potash, when tiie 
surface assumes a bright appearance ; 
wash well with warm water and dry with 
a warm cloth. Aluminum alloys are 
treated like copper alloys. 

Copper and Its Alloys 

Copper, brass, bronze, etc., become oxi- 
dized in ordinary moist air, and, in con- 
sequence of the simultaneous presence of 
carbonic acid, may become gradually con- 
verted into carbonates. In fact, the 
brownish-black to bluish-green deposit 
often seen on copper, brass and bronze 
goods is a mixture of oxide and carbon- 
ate of copper mixed with oxygen com- 
pounds of zinc or tin, respectively, when 
the copper is present as an alloy of these 
metals. 

Dipping in Nitric Acid, Common Salt 
and Soot. — Brass, and similar articles, 
after cleaning in pickle, are rinsed in 
water, well shaken and drained, then 
dipped in a bath consisting of 100 parts 
of nitric acid, 1 part of common salt and 
1 part of calcined soot. This mixture 
attacks the metal with great energy, and, 
therefore, it should only remain in it a 
few seconds. The Volume of acid should 
be 20 times that of the articles immersed 
in it, to prevent undue heating and toe 
rapid weakening of the acid. When re- 
moved, the articles should be quickly 
rinsed in water to prevent the production 



of nitrous fumes. They then present a 
fine luster, varying from red to golden 
yellow and greenish yellow, according to 
the composition of the alloy. 

Dead Dipping. — To the above in- 
gredients add a mixture of the following 
if a dead surface is desired : Nitric acid, 
1 lb. ; strong sulphuric acid, % lb. ; com- 
mon salt, 5 gr. ; zinc sulphate, 20 gr. The 
longer the articles remain in this dip the 
deader will be the surface. They are then 
thoroughly swilled and dried as quickly as 
possible. Or previous to swilling with 
water they may be momentarily dipped in 
the bright dipping liquid. 

Another liquid for dead dipping 
may be made of 1 volume of a concen- 
trated solution of potassium bichromate 
and 2 volumes of a concentrated hydro- 
chloric acid. The articles should be left 
in this solution for some hours, then well 
swilled in several wash waters. If, how- 
ever, they are left exposed to the air for 
some time without lacquering or further 
treatment, they become coated with a film 
of oxide. Dead-dipped articles, while 
waiting to be bronzed or lacquered, may 
be kept from oxidizing by immersing in 
clean water to which half its volume of 
alcohol has been added. In the case of 
copper alloys, such as brass; the surface 
color will depend not only on the original 
composition of the alloy, but also on the 
length of time it has been exposed to the 
action of the acid. The zinc is oxidized 
more rapidly than the copper, so that the 
effect of dipping in nitric acid or other 
oxidizing liquid is to increase the relative 
quantity of copper on the surface, and to 
give to the alloy a richer appearance and 
a deeper color. When it is desired to 
clean very small articles, and not to ap- 
preciably alter the composition, they may 
be dipped in a solution of 5 parts of po- 
tassium cyanide dissolved in 95 parts of 
water. 

Iron and Steel 

For cleaning iron articles generally, a 
cold mixture of about 20 measures of 
water and 1 measure of sulphuric acid 
is frequently used; but a better liquid ia 



[207] 



(Aluminum) 



(Brass) 



composed of 1 gal. of water, 1 lb. of sul- 
phuric acid, with 1 or 2 oz. of zinc dis- 
solved in it; to this is added % lb. of 
nitric acid. This mixture leaves the iron 
quite bright, whereas dilute sulphuric 
acid alone leaves it black, or of a differ- 
ent appearance at the edges. It should be 
scoured with sharp sand and brushed with 
a steel scratch brush. 

Lead, Tin, and Their Alloys 

These metals are cleaned to remove dirt 
and grease, as with other metals, by 
means of a caustic alkali solution, and 
brushing with sand, etc. 

ALUMINUM 

Aluminum, To Blacken 

White arsenic, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 
1 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 12 oz. ; water, 
12 oz. When the arsenic and iron are 
dissolved by the acid add the water. The 
aluminum to be blackened should be well 
cleaned with fine emery powder, and 
washed, before immersing in the black- 
ening solution. When the deposit of black 
is deep enough, dry off with fine sawdust 
and lacquer. 

Coppering 

1.— iSulphate of copper, 30 parts; 
cream of tartar, 30 parts ; soda, 25 parts ; 
water, 1,000 parts. It suffices to plunge 
the articles to be coppered in this bath, 
but they have to be well cleaned previ- 
ously. 

2. — By means of a battery : Phosphate 
of sodium, 50 parts; cyanide of potas- 
sium, 50 parts ; cyanide of copper, 50 
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. 

BRASS 

A method is with chloride of plati- 
num. For this purpose they are first 
heated to redness, and then dipped 
in a weak solution of sulphuric acid. Aft- 
erward they are immersed in dilute ni- 
tric acid, thoroughly washed in water, and 
dried in sawdust. To effect a uniformity 
in the color they are plunged in a bath 
consisting of 2 parts of nitric acid and 1 
part of rain water, where they are suf- 
fered to remain for several minutes. 
Should the color not be free from spots 
and patches, the operations must be re- 
peated until the desired effect is pro- 
duced. 

Black 

A very good black color can be ob- 
tained on brass by a solution of copper 



nitrate, 50 parts; water, 100 parts. If 
the work is too large for immersion, it 
is heated, and the solution is applied by 
means of a paint brush, when the heat- 
ing is continued until the surface is dry. 
It is then gently rubbed with a linen pad 
and brushed with or immersed in a solu- 
tion of potassium sulphide, 10 parts ; 
water, 100 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 5 
parts. Immersion of the work in the li- 
quid produces much better results, and, 
after draining off the superfluous liquid 
it is heated on a hot plate or over a clean 
fire till dry. We have obtained more uni- 
form results by using a solution about 
three times more dilute than the precea- 
ing solution of copper nitrate, viz. : Cop- 
per nitrate, 100 parts ; water, 600 parts. 
The heating process must not be contin- 
ued longer than is necessary to convert 
the whole of the green salt which forms 
on drying into the black copper oxide. 
A good black can thus be produced on 
brass in this way without recourse to the 
second pickling in potassium sulphide, but 
this second pickling is probably advan- 
tageous in fixing the color. 

Black Bronze for Brass. — Dip the 
article, bright, in nitric acid, rinse the 
acid off with clean water, and place it in 
the following mixture until it turns black : 
Hydrochloric acid, 12 lb. ; sulphate of 
iron, 1 lb. ; pure white arsenic, 1 lb. It 
is then taken out, rinsed in clean water, 
dried in sawdust, polished with blacklead, 
and then lacquered with green lacquer. 

The dead black on optical instru- 
ments is produced by dipping in a solu- 
tion of chloride of platinum. To make 
this, take 2 parts of hydrochloric acid, 1 
part of nitric acid, mix in a glass bot- 
tle, and put in as much platinum foil as 
the acid will dissolve when placed in 
warm sand bath ; or, to hasten the solu- 
tion, heat to nearly the boiling point of 
the acids ; % oz. of nitric acid and 1 oz. 
of hydrochloric acid will absorb about 30 
gr. of platinum, but in order to neutralize 
the acid it is better to have a surplus of 
platinum. Dip the article or brush in 
the chloride. 

Blue-black. — (Copper carbonate, 7 oz., 
is dissolved in 1% qt. of strong am- 
monia. A precipitate is formed, and the 
solution is diluted with 1 qt. of water. 

Optical Instruments and Other Brass 
Work. — For dead black for inside of 
tubes, use alcoholic shellac varnish and 
lampblack, equal parts by weight, and 
thin with enough alcohol to make it flow 
freely with the brush. 



[208] 



(Brass) 



(Brass) 



Bronzing Brass by Simple Immersion 





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Color. 



pt, dr. dr. pt. oz. gr. oz. dr. dr. oz. pt. dr. dr. dr. oz. 

1 5 Brown and every shade to black. 

1 . . 5 Brown and every shade to black. 



1 16 
1 .. 
1 .. 



16 
16 



Brown and every shade to red. 
Brown and every shade to red. 
Brownish red. 
Brownish red. 
Dark brown. 



1 1 4 

1 30 . . . . 6 Yellow to red. 

1 1 Orange. 

2 . . . . 1 Olive green. 

1.. 5 2 Slate. 

1 20 .. .. Blue. 

1 1 . . Steel gray. 

1 . . . . 2 . . . . 10 Black. 

In preparation of No. 5. liquid must be brought to a boil, and cooled. In using 
No. 13, the heat of the liquid must not be under 180°. No. 6 is slow in action. The 
action of the others is, for the most part, immediate. — [English pint, 20 oz. — Ed.] 



Dulling Brass 

Take 1 part, by weight, of iron rust, 1 
part of white arsenic, and 12 parts of 
hydrochloric acid ; mix. Clean the brass 
thoroughly, and apply with a brush until 
the color desired is obtained ; then oil 
well, dry, and lacquer. 

Green 

1. — Sulphate of copper, 120 gr. ; hydro- 
chlorate of ammonia, 30 gr. ; water 1 qt. 

2. — Dissolve 2 oz. of nitrate of iron 
and 2 oz. of hyposulphite of soda in 1 pt. 
of water. Immerse the articles in the 
bronze till of the required tint, as almost 
any shade from brown to red can be ob- 
tained ; then well wash with water, dry, 
and brush. One part of perchloride of 
iron and 2 parts of water, mixed together, 
and the brass immersed in the liquid, 
gives a pale or deep olive green, ac- 
cording to the time of immersion. If 
nitric acid is saturated with copper, and 
the brass dipped in the liquid and then 
heated, it assumes a dark green. ^ If well 
brushed, it may be lacquered with pale 
gold lacquer, or else polished with oil. 

3. — The reppatod applications of alter- 
nate washps of dilute acvtic acid and ex- 
posure to the fumes of ammonia, will give 
a very antique-looking green bronze; but 



a quick mode of producing a similar ap- 
pearance is often desirable. To this end 
the articles may be immersed in a solu- 
tion of 1 part of perchloride of iron m 
2 parts of water. The tone assumed dark- 
ens with the length of the immersion. 
Patina 

1. — This beautiful color was originally 
produced by articles being exposed for a 
long time to the action of the atmos- 
phere. The green color is largely imi- 
tated by either of the following methods : 
Copper carbonate is triturated with san- 
darac varnish. This affords the cheapest 
and poorest imitation, and is largely used 
in painting the little iron castings which 
are so largely sold in Rome for souvenirs. 

2. — Copper, 30 grams; concentrated 
nitric acid, 60 grams; acetic acid, 6%, 
600 grams; ammonium chloride, 11 
grams; ammonia water, 20 grams. The 
copper is dissolved in the nitric acid, and 
as soon as solution is effected the other 
ingredients are added. The solution must 
be_ allowed to stand several davs before 
using. The objects to be coated are either 
dipped into the solution for a moment or 
the solution is applied to the surfaoe by 
means of a brush. Th'^v are tb^n al- 
lowed to dry, and are finally covered with 
a thin coat of linseed oil. 



[209] 



(Copper) 



(Copper) 



Steel Blue 

1.— ^Dissolve 3 dr. of antimony sulphide 
and 4 oz. of calcined soda in 1% pt. or 
water. To this add SVa dr. of kermes. 
Filter, and mix this solution with 5y2 dr. 
of tartar, 11 dr. of sodium hyposulphite 
and 11/2 pt. of water. If polished sheet 
brass is placed in the warm mixture, it 
will assume a beautiful steel-blue color. 

2. — The brass, laid in a leaden vessel 
containing hydrochloric acid and a little 
arsenic acid, assumes iridescent tints, and 
may be removed when the desired shade 
of blue is obtained. 

BRONZING 

Antique Bronzes.— In order to give new 
bronze castings ; the appearance and pa- 
tina of old bronze, various compositions 
are employed, of which the following are 
the principal ones: 

1. — Vinegar, 1 1. ; sal ammoniac, 8 
grams; potassium bioxalate, 1 gram. 

2 — Water, 120 grams ; copper sulphate 
solution, 80 grams (d = 1.46) ; sal am- 
moniac, 10 grams; cream of tartar, 6 
grams ; sea salt, 60 grams. 

3,_Vert Antique.— a.— Vinegar, 1 1. ; 
copper sulphate, 16 grams; sea salt, 
32 grams ; sal ammoniac, 32 grams ; moun- 
tain green (Sanders green), 70 grams; 
chrome yellow, 30 grams; ammonia, 32 

b.— ^Vinegar, 1 1.; copper sulphate, 16 
grams ; sea salt, 32 grams ; sal ammoniac, 
32 grams; mountain green, 70 grams; 
ammonia, 32 grams. , 

c. — To obtain darker vert antique, add 
a little plumbago to the preceding mix- 
tures. ^ , - 

4. — Vert a I'eau. — Vinegar, 1 1. ; sal 
ammoniac, 50 grams ; ammonia, 50 grams ; 
mountain green, 70 grams; chrome yel- 
low, 30 grams. 

For bronzing immerse the object in any 
of the foregoing mixtures, or cover it 
rapidly with a soft brush. The object 
will turn more or less green according 
to the length of time it is immersed or 
has been under the action of the fluid. 
The excess of the fluid is removed by 
means of a long-haired brush, and after 
that the article is allowed to dry for 24 
hours. A second or even third coating 
may be applied, if necessary, in order to 
obtain darker shades. The bronze is 
finished by an energetic brushing with 
wax or olive oil or a mixture of both. 

COPPER 

To Color Copper and Nickelplated 
Objects. — The Journal des Applications 
Electriques says that 11 different colors 
may be communicated to well-cleaned 



copper and 8 to nickelplated objects, by 
means of the following bath: Acetate 
of lead, 300 gr.; hyposulphite of soda, 
600 gr. ; water, 1 qt. After the salts 
are dissolved the solution is heated to 
ebullition and the metal is afterward im- 
mersed therein. At first a gray color is 
obtained, and this, on the immersion be- 
ing continued, passes to violet, and suc- 
cessively to maroon, red, etc., and finally 
to blue, which is the last color. As the 
substances that enter into the composi- 
tion of the solution cost but a few cents, 
the process is a cheap one. It is espe- 
cially applicable in the manufacture of 
buttons. 

Blacking 

1. — To give a copper article a black 
covering clean it with emery paper, heat 
gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, im- 
merse for 10 seconds in a solution of 
copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and 
heat again. 

2. — To color copper black, immerse the 
object, previously well cleaned, in the 
following and let remain for from 30 to 
45 minutes, and afterward wash well: 
Antimony chloride, 15 parts ; alcohol, 125 
parts ; hydrochloric acid, sufficient to dis- 
solve. Mix. The less of the acid that 
is used the better the result. This proc- 
ess deposits a coating of antimony. 

3. — Plunge the object in nitric acid, 
remove, and heat to a dull red. Deposits 
a coating of copper oxide. 

Bluing 

1. — Dip the article in a solution of 2 
oz. of liver of sulphur and 2 oz. of 
chlorate of soda in 1,000 oz. of water. 

2. — Dip the article in a solution of 
ferrocyanide of potassium very strongly 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid. 

Bronzing 

1. — A dilute solution of ammonium 
sulphide, used cold, yields very beautiful 
effects, as shown by the following re- 
sults : This solution works very well for 
copper, but it is not suitable for brass. 
The solution works well either hot 
or cold, strong or dilute. The colors 
depend more upon the manipulation of 
the process than upon either tempera- 
ture or density. Colors may be obtained 
ranging from a neutral crimson through 
brown and steel gray to black. This 
solution may be used for bronzing work 
which is too large to immerse in the solu- 
tion, by moistening it with a spongp or 
cloth, then allowing the articles to stand 
exposed to the air till they are dry, when 
th^y may be scratch-brushed and the | 
moistening repeated if the color is not 



[210] 



(Copper) 



(Copper) 



deep enough, or the bronzing not uni- 
formly distributed. When the right tint 
is attained the articles should be thor- 
oughly washed, first with warm water, 
then with cold water, and finally dried 
out in sawdust and brushed with a wax 
brush. 

2. — Having thoroughly cleaned and 
polished the surface of the specimen, with 
a brush apply the common crocus powder, 
previously made into a paste with water. 
When dry place it in an iron ladle, or 
on a common fire shovel, over a clear 
fire, for about 1 minute, and when suf- 
ficiently cool polish with a plate brush. 
By this process a bronze similar to that 
on tea urns is produced. 

3. — By substituting finely powdered 
plumbago for crocus powder in the above 



process a beautiful deep color is produced. 

4. — Rub the metal with a solution of 
potassium sulphide (liver of sulphur, old 
name), then dry. This produces the ap- 
pearance of antique bronze very exactly. 

5. — ^Dissolve 2 oz. of verdigris and 1 
oz. of sal ammoniac in 1 pt. of vinegar, 
and dilute the mixture with water until 
it tastes but slightly metallic, when it 
must be boiled for a few minutes and 
filtered for use. Copper medals, etc., pre- 
viously thoroughly cleaned from grease 
and dirt, are to be steeped in the liquor 
at the boiling point, until the desired 
effect is produced. Care must be taken 
not to kppp thom in the solution too long. 
When taken out they should be carefully 
washed in hot water and well dried. 



Bronzing Fluids for Copper by Simple Immersion. 



o 
d ^ 



o _ 

4; liri .a 



:2§ 



^ . -So B -^o 
rr> Tf) rr> S 



^ i-j i-> ;j 

^< m m in 



n3 S 



>.2 



3 r:: 



-= S 



3 

M 03 
CO 
ft O 



CO 



Color. 



pt. 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 



dr. 
5 
5 



oz. dr. 



dr. dr. oz. dr. oz. dr. 

Brown and every shade to black. 

2 . . . . Dark brown drab. 

1 2 DarV brown drab. 

1 Bright red. 

1 .. 1 Ked and every shade to black. 

1 Steel gray at 180°. 



Browning of Copper 

1. — The following solution has been 
recommended for producing a reddish- 
brown color, which becomes paler on 
heating : Dissolve 1 part of copper acetate 
in 16 parts of water ; then add suflBcient 
ammonia to give a deep blue solution, 
and add 2 parts of potassium sulphide, 
3 parts of ammonia, and 10 parts of 
water. Copper acetate, 60 gr. ; water, 2 
fl. oz. ; ammonia, till the solution is blue ; 
potassium sulphide, 120 gr. ; ammonia, 3 
fl. dr. ; water, li^ A. oz. This solution 
gave precisely the same results as with 
potassium sulphide and water, so that the 
other constituents appear to be useless. 
The reaction on copper is instantaneous, 
but brass is simply tarnished. 

2. — A very beautiful and pleasing color 
of a light brown shade may be quickly 
produced by a mixture of 1 part copper 
sulphate, 1 part zinc chloride and 1 part 
!Water. The above forms a paste which 



is applied to the article and allowed to 
dry on it. It is then well washed with 
water, when a uniform color is obtained. 
This would be one of the most valuable 
colors if it were permanent, but, un. 
fortunately, it is changed by the action 
of light to a dark green, almost black. 
This change also occurs when the bronze 
is coated with a film of transparent 
lacquer, and although we have tried sev- 
eral methods for preventing the change, 
no suitable remedy has yet been dis- 
covered. 

Green 

Sodium chloride 37 parts; ammonia 
water, 75 parts; ammonium chloride, 37 
parts ; strong wine vinegar, 5,000 parts. 
Mix, and dissolve. Apply to the object 
to be treated with a camel's-hair pencil. 
Repeat the operation until the desired 
shade of green is reached. 

Bluish Green. — 1. — After using the 
first formula (for green) pencil over with 



[211] 



(Oxidizing Copper) 



(Gold) 



the following solution : Ammonium 
chloride, 40 parts ; ammonium carbonate, 
120 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Mix, and 
dissolve. 

2. — Corrosive sublimate, 25 parts; 
potassium nitrate, 86 parts; borax, 56 
parts; zinc oxide, 113 parts; copper 
acetate, 220 to 225 parts. Mix, and heat 
together on the surface of the object 
under treatment. 

Bronze Green Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 
qt. ; verditer green, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 
2 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ; alum, i/^ 
oz. ; French berries, 8 oz. ; boil the in- 
gredients together. 

Olive Green. — Cover with a solution 
of iron and arsenic in hydrochloric acid, 
Polish with lead minium, warm, and 
cover with the following varnish : Gum 
gutta, 1 part; yellow ocher, 1 part; alco- 
holic varnish, 1 part. Mix. 

Yellow-Green. — ^ 1. — Oxalic acid, 5 
parts ; ammonium chloride, 10 parts ; 
acetic acid, 30% dilution, 500 parts. Mix, 
and dissolve. Use as above indicated. 

2. — The following will produce the 
same result : Potassium oxalate, acid, 4 
parts ; ammonium chloride, 16 to 17 
parts ; vinegar containing 6% of acetic 
acid, 1,000 parts. Mix, and dissolve. Use 
as before. 

Oxidizing 

1. — Copper and Brass. — Immerse the 
articles in a solution of 2 oz. of nitrate 
of iron and 2 oz. of hyposulphite of soda 
to 1 pt. of water, until the desired shade 
of oxidation is acquired ; then wash, dry, 
and brush. 

2. — Platinum S(>lu^ion. — Dissolve suf- 
.^T'l^t platinum in aqua regia, and care- 
tally evaporate the resulting solution 
(chloride of platinum) to dryness. The 
dried mass may then be dissolved in alco- 
hol, ether, or water, according to the 
effect which it is desired to produce, a 
slightly different effect being produced 
by each of the solutions. Apply the 
solution of platinum with a camel's-hair 
brush, and repeat the operation as often 
as may be necessary to increase the depth 
of tone. A single application is fre- 
quently suflBcient. The ethereal or alco- 
holic solution of platinum must be kept 
in a well stoppered bottle, and in a cool 
place. The aqueous solution of platinum 
should be applied hot. 

Red 

1. — ^To redden copper, hang it for from 
a few minutes to an hour, according to 
the shade wanted, in a 5 to 10% solu- 
tion of ferrocyanide of potassium in 
water. By adding a little hydrochloric 
acid to the solution the color given to 



the copper may be made to assume a 
purple shade. On removing the copper 
dry it in the air, or in fine sawdust ; 
rinse, and polish with a brush or chamois 
leather, after drying it again. 

2. — Royal Copper Finish. — The copper 
coloring is termed royal copper from its 
intense red color. It is produced by 
dipping in a solution of 2 dr. of sulphide 
of antimony, 1 oz. of pearlash to 1 pt. 
of water, or by boiling the copper arti- 
cles for 15 minutes in a strong solution 
of tartar and water. 

Silver 

Nitrate of silver, 60 gr. ; common salt,. 
40 gr. ; cream of tartar, 7 dr. This will 
be ready for application when mixed and 
moistened with a little water. 

GOLD 
This operation consists of imparting i 
color to gold articles after every other 
I process has been completed. Its object 
j is to give to alloyed gold all the appear- 
ance of fine gold itself, by dissolving 
out the base metal from the surface of 
the articles and leaving a facing of g^ld 
of a deep, rich color. Two distinct 
modes of* coloring are adopted by 
jewelers, termed, respectively, dry color- 
ing and wet coloring. The latter is most 
frequently practised, as tke former '28 n- 
not well be applieo to gold inferior to 
18 carats. 

Dry Coloring 

This term "s applied to the colorir^ 
process wh^r-. no liquids are used as con- 
stituents ^-t the mixture. The ingrert.- 
ents used are : Potassium nitrate, 8 oz. ; 
common salt, 4 oz. ; alum, 3 oz. These 
substances are ground to a fine powder, 
well mixed, and placed in a previously 
heated blacklead color pot, of the ssme 
dimensions as that described for use in 
wet coloring, but the same pot must not 
be employed for dry coloring as has bern 
used for the wet process. It is well 
to get the pot nearly red hot before 
placing the color in it. The mixture must 
then be constantly stirred with an iron 
rod. It will first boil up as a greenish 
liquid, then solidify, and afterward boil 
up a second time, and become thoroughly 
fused, having a brownish-yellow color. 
At this stage the work, which has been 
previously annealed and dipped in dilute 
aquafortis, is dipped in the color, being 
suspended on a silver or platinum wire, 
the latter being preferred, and kept in 
motion for about a minute and a half, 
thpn immersed in hailing water contain- 
ing a little aquafortis. The immersion 



[212] 



(Gold) 



(Iron and Steel) 



and swilling are again repeated, when the 
articles possess a beautiful color. They 
are then washed in hot water containing 
a little potash, and finally dried in warm 
boxwood sawdust. In dry coloring, the 
work should be as highly polished as pos- 
sible previous to the coloring, for the 
brighter it is the better will be the final 
color. The time given above is only in- 
tended as a general guide, as some work 
will color much quicker than others, and 
the time can only be arrived at by ex- 
perience. The following mixtures have 
been recommended for coloring : 

Process. — 1. — Potassium nitrate, 8 oz. ; 
common salt, 4 oz. ; alum, 4 oz. 

2. — Sal ammoniac, 4 oz. ; potassium 
nitrate, 4 oz. ; borax, 4 oz. 

Wet Coloring 

The ingredients of the mixture em- 
ployed in this process have a powerfully 
solvent action on the base metal with 
which the gold is alloyed, and a weaker 
action on the gold itself, so that the 
article loses weight in direct ratio to 
the length of time it is submitted to the 
coloring process, and this loss is greater 
as the gold is lower in quality. Gee 
states that the coloring is hastened, and 
the loss in weight reduced to a minimum, 
by using old coloring liquid, and he as- 
sumes that the dissolved gold is, to some 
extent, deposited again on the article, 
because the loss in weight of some com- 
mon qualities of gold was found to be 
very little, and the amount of gold re- 
covered from the spent coloring liquid 
very small indeed. This statement is in 
accord with the well-known fact that in 
any liquid in which a metal, say copper. 
is electropositive to the metal in solu 
tion, say gold, the latter is deposited on 
the former. The following has been 
supplied by an experienced Birmingham 
jeweler, which he has found to be effec- 
tive : Potassium nitrate, 12 oz. ; common 
salt, 6 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 3 oz. The 
nitrate and salt are pounded to a fine 
powder, and placed in a previously 
warmed plumbago crucible about 8 by 7 
in., then stirred with a wooden spoon 
for a minute or two. The acid is then 
added, with about 1 oz. of boiling water, 
and the mass constantly stirred until it 
boils up to the top of the pot. The 
work, which has been previously cleansed 
in hot potash or soda solution, is then 
suspended in the coloring liquid by means 
of a silver or platinum wi^e for about 
one minute, then well swilled in boiling 
water. A little mor»^ water is added to 
the color pot, and when the liquid boils 
up the work is again immersed for an- 



other minute, and swilled in boiling water 
as before. This operation of dipping and 
swilling is repeated several times, the 
coloring liquid being weakened by adding 
water before each immersion, until the 
desired appearance is attained. The work 
is filially well washed in hot water and 
dried in boxwood sawdust. The whole 
process takes 5 to 7 minutes. The colored 
work is next scratch-brushed, on a lathe, 
with a revolving brush made of very fine 
brass wire, and having stale beer drop- 
ping on it. If the coloring has been 
properly conducted, a beautiful rich and 
dead color is produced. 

Process. — 1. — 

Potassium nitrate 8 14 15 14 

Common salt 4 7 7 7 

Alum 4 7 7 .. 

Hydrochloric acid 2 15 

Water in each case 

2. — The following is a useful mixture 
for removing tarnish from colored gold 
articles which have been kept in stock 
for some time : Bicarbonate of soda, 2 
oz. ; chloride of lime, 1 oz. ; common salt, 
1 oz. ; water, 16 oz. Well mix the above 
ingredients, and apply with a soft brush. 

IRON AND STEEL 
Blacking 

Bine Black. — Clean the object thor- 
oughly, remove every trace of grease, 
then cover with the following : Copper 
sulphate, 8 parts; nitric acid, 15 parts; 
alcohol, 30 parts ; water, 125 parts. Mix, 
ond dissolve. Let dry on, and when 
quite dry rub with a woolen cloth. 

Brilliant Black. — Boil together: Sul- 
phur, 1 part ; oil of turpentine, 10 parts. 
While boiling, spread in a very light 
coating, by means of a pencil, over the 
surface, and heat in the flame of an 
alcohol lamp until black. 

Gun Metal. — For blacking gun barrels : 
Solution of nitric acid, 2 oz. ; tincture 
of iron, 4 oz. ; alcohol^ 3 oz. ; sweer 
spirits of niter, 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; 
rain water, 1^ pt. Scour the barrel 
smooth ; remove all grease with lime, 
then coat freely with the mixture with 
a piece of sponge, but not so as to run 
about the barrel. Let stand in a cool 
place for about 10 hours, then remove 
to a W5irm room, and let stand till dry, 
when the rust will fly off and not be 
sticky or streaky. The barrels are not 
dry, and must stand until quite dry, or 
the result will be a red barrel. The 
scratching must be done with lard, then 
boil for about 10 minutes ; take out. 
and wipe inside and out; let stand till 
cool, then s<^rfitch to rennove the dead 
rust; wipe with a clean rag, then coat 



[213] 



(Bluing Steel) 



(Browning Steel) 



with the mixture lightly ; let it stand 
till dry. Scratch, boil, etc., as in first 
coat, for 6 coats, when the barrels may 
be finished by oiling. 

Bluing 

Gun Metal. — 1. — Hevolver. — Sometimes 
the steel is heated to a light gray color, 
allowed to cool, and reheated until blue, 
(a) Get as high a polish as possible on 
the part which you want to blue. (b) 
Get an iron box made (thin sheet iron). 
If for the chamber only, say about 6 
in. square ; no need for rivets ; just 
doubled together. (c) Pound up some 
wood charcoal ; fill your box with it ; put 
the box on a fire (any fire) ; stir up the 
charcoal now and again, till you find it 
is partly ignited. Now put your cham- 
ber into the box of partly ignited char- 
coal ; put it in about midway, so as to 
have as much heat at the bottom as at 
top and sides, (d) Have handy a hand- 
ful of dry powdered lime and a piece of 
tow or cotton waste ; you will want a 
small pair of tongs, or other means of 
lifting your article out of the box. When 
you put the article in the box place it 
again on the fire. Now you must pay 
attention to it ; lift it out about every 
10 minutes, and don't stand looking at 
it, but at once rub it with the tow dipped 
in the lime. As quickly as possible puc 
back into the charcoal. Don't let your 
charcoal get too hot; when you see it 
getting very hot lift the box off the fire 
and stand it in any convenient spot; re- 
place on fire again, if necessary. Now, 
the following is important : Your cham- 
ber, in a short time, gets of a purple 
color, then bright blue. It is very tempt- 
ing to leave off at this bright blue. Don't. 
This first blue is no good ; at least no 
good where the article has to be rubbed 
and cleaned. Continue. The bright blue 
will depart, leaving your chamber nearly 
as before you put it in the box. Don't 
forget every 7 or 10 minutes to take out 
the article and rub it with the tow and 
dry lime. It must not be kept long in 
the air. Presently you should obtain a 
rich dark blue. Finally, when blued, let 
it cool, then oil (any oil). 

2. — Gun Barrels. — To ^ stain, dis- 
solve 4^ oz. of hyposulphite of soda in 
1 qt. of water, also 1% oz. of acetate 
of lead in 1 qt. of water. Mix the two 
solutions and bring to a boil in a porce- 
lain dish or stone pot. Clean the gun 
barrel free from grease, oil or varnish, 
warm the barrel, and smear with the hot 
solution, using a piece of sponge tied to 
a stick. When color develops, wash, and 
wipe dry ; finish with boiled linseed oil. 



Without Heat. — '1. — Clean every part 
carefully, and apply nitric acid, 1 part, 
diluted with 10 parts of water, until a 
blue film is produced on the surface. Then 
wash with warm water, dry, and wipe 
with linseed oil. 

2. — Solution of potassium ferrocyanide 
and water, 1 :200 ; solution of ferric 
chloride, 1 :200. Mix the two solutions, 
and dip. 

3. — lAntimony trichloride, 25 parts; 
nitric acid, fuming, 25 parts ; hydro- 
chloric acid, 50 parts. Apply with a rag, 
and rub, until the proper color is 
obtained, with a piece of green oak. 

Steel. — Try the following : Scour 
the steel with a small quantity of a 
strong aqueous solution of soda, rinse in 
water, warm, and brush over with a solu- 
tion of 14 oz. of chloride of iron dissolved 
in 5 oz. of water, and let it dry ; then 
apply in the same manner a solution of 
1-5 of an ounce of pyrogallic acid in 1 oz. 
of water ; dry, and brush. Does not 
wear well without lacquering. The blue 
oxide is sometimes imitated by using a 
thin alcoholic shellac varx.^sh, colored 
with aniline blue or Prussian blue. 

Bronzing 

Lay the object for a moment in a solu- 
tion of iron perchloride and copper sul- 
phate, with a little added nitric acid. 
Remove, and dry at a temperature of 
about 30° C. (85° F.). Finally, suspend 
in a close box containing a vessel of 
boiling alcohol, and leave for 20 minutes, 
keeping the alcohol boiling all the time. 
Scratch off with a scratch brush. Re- 
peat the operation several times, or until 
the desired tint is obtained. 

Cast Iron. — The Maschinenbauer de- 
scribes the following process for impart- 
ing to common cast iron all the rich 
glow of bronze, without covering it with 
a metal or an alloy. Thoroughly cleanse 
the surface, and rub it down smooth ; 
apply evenly a coat of vegetable oil, 
say sweet or olive oil, and heat the iron 
object, being careful that the tempera- 
ture does not rise high enough to burn 
the oil. At the moment of decomposi- 
tion of the oil the cast iron will absorb 
oxygen, and this forms upon the surface 
a brown oxide skin or film, which takes 
a fast hold, and is so hard that it will 
admit of a high polish, thus bestowing 
upon the iron a most striking resemblance 
to bronze. 

Browning 

Dissolve in 4 parts of water 2 parts 
of crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts of 
antimony chloride and 1 part of gallic 
acid, and apply the solution with a 



[214] 



(Steel) 



(Silver) 



sponge or cloth to the article, and dry 
it in the air. Repeat this any number 
of times, according to the depth of color 
which it is desired to produce. Wash 
with water, and dry, and finally rub the 
articles over with boiled linseed oil. The 
metal thus receives a brown tint, and re- 
sists moisture. The antimony chloride 
should be as little acid as possible. 

Guns. — 1. — The following recipe for 
browning is from the U. S. Ordnance 
Manual: Alcohol, 1% oz. ; tincture of 
iron, iy2 oz, ; corrosive sublimate, ll^ 
oz. ; sweet spirits of niter, 1% oz. ; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, % oz. Mix, 
and dissolve in 1 qt. of warm water, and 
keep in a glass jar. Clean the barrel 
well with caustic soda water to remove 
grease or oil. Then clean the surface 
of all stains and marks by emery paper 
or cloth, so as to produce an even bright 
surface for the acid to act upon, and one 
without finger marks. Stop the bore and 
vent with wooden plugs. Then apply 
the mixture to every part with a sponge 
or rag, and expose to the air for 24 
hours, when the loose rust should be 
rubbed off with a steel scratch brush. Use 
the mixture and a scratch brush twice, 
and more, if necessary, and finally wash 
in boiling water, dry quickly, and wipe 
with linseed oil, or varnish with shellac. 

2. — Sulphate of copper, % av.oz. ; 
corrosive chloride of mercury, 1 av.oz. ; 
tincture of chloride of iron, 4 fl.oz. ; alco- 
hol., 4 fl.oz. ; strong nitric acid, % fl.oz. 
Mix, and apply to the metal, which must 
be perfectly clean from all dirt or grease, 
with a sponge or rag ; allow to remain 
24 hours, so as to get thoroughly drv, 
then burnish with a hard brush. To 
obtain the desired shade of color, repeat 
the application and burnishing as often 
as is necessary, and then lacquer the 
metal with a thin, clear lacquer. 

[ Coppering 

Sulphate of copper, 1% lb.; dissolve, 
! and add 1 fl. oz. of sulphuric acid. 

Frosting Steel 

> Clean and polish the metal, flow it 
! quickly with dilute nitric acid, and when 

the proper point is reached wash well 

in running water. 

Gilding 

Polished steel may be beautifully gilded 
by means of the ethereal solution of 
gold. Dissolve pure gold in aqua regia, 
evaporate gently to dryness, so as to drive 
off the superfluous acid, redissolve in 
water, and add 3 times its bulk of sul- 
phuric ether. Allow to stand for 24 



hours in a stoppered bottle, and the 
ethereal solution of gold will float on top. 
Polished steel, dipped in this, is at once 
beautifully gilded, and by tracing pat- 
terns on the surface of the metal with 
any kind of varnish beautiful devices in 
plain metal and gilt will be produced. 
For other metals the electro process is 
best. 

NICKEL 

1. — The following solution gives nickel 
a rich, velvety black color : Water, 3 1. 
785 grams ; nickel-ammonium sulphate, 
34.02 grams ; potassium sulphocyanide, 
85.05 grams ; copper carbonate, 56.70 
grams. The same effect is produced by 
a solution of arsenic trioxide in am- 
monium carbonate. 

2, — Nickel, as well as copper, can be 
blackened by brushing with an aqueous 
solution of platinic chloride. 

SILVER 

Blackening 

1. — Plunge into a solution of an alka- 
line sulphide. Remove, and rub with a 
brush dipped in powdered cream of tartar. 

2. — Rub the object with a solution of 
silver nitrate. 

Brov7ning 

To give silver a deep brown color, treat 
it with a solution of sal ammoniac and 
copper sulphate, in equal parts, in 
vinegar. 

Frosting and Whitening of Silver 
Goods, Pickle for 

1. — Sulphuric acid, 1^ dr. ; water, 6 
oz. Heat, and immerse the silver until 
frosted as desired. Wash well, dry with 
a soft linen cloth or in fine sawdust. 
For whitening only, use less acid. 

2. — Polished Silver. — Make a solution 
of % oz. of cyanide of potassium in i/4 
pt. of water. Apply to the silver with 
a brush. Hold the silver with pliers 
made of lancewood oi boxwood. Very 
poisonous. 

Gilding 

-1. — ^Dissolve equal parts, by weight, of 
bichloride of mercury (corrosive subli- 
mate) and chloride of ammonium sal am- 
moniac) in nitric acid ; now add some 
grain gold to the mixture, and evaporate 
the liquid to half its bulk ; apply while 
hot to the surface of the silver article. 

2. — A rich gold tint may be imparted 
to silver articles by plunging them into 
dilute sulphuric acid saturated with iron 
rust. 

3. — Water Gilding.— »Pour strong vine- 



[215] 



(Silver) 



(Zinc) 



gar on copper flakes ; add alum and salt 
in equal quantities; set on a fire, and 
when the vinegar has boiled until it be- 
comes 1/4 part its original quantity throw 
into it the metal you design to gild, and 
it will assume a copper color. ^ Con- 
tinue boiling, and it will change into a 
fine gold color. 

Oxidizing 

1. — Add four or five thousandths of am- 
monium sulphide or potassium sulphide 
to water at a temperature of 160 to 180° 
F. When the articles are dipped into 
this solution an iridescent coating of sil- , 
ver sulphide is produced, which, after a 1 
few seconds, turns blue black if allowed 1 
to remain in the liquid. Remove, rinse, j 
scratch-brush, and burnish when desired. 

2. — ^There are two distinct shades in 
use, one produced by a chloride, which 
has a brownish tint, and the other by 
sulphur, which has a bluish-black tint. 
To produce the former it is only neces- 
sary to wash the article with a solution of 
sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). 

3. — A much more beautiful tint may be 
obtained by employing a solution com- 
posed of equal parts of copper sulphate 
and ammonium chloride in vinegar (or 
dilute acetic acid). The fine black tint 
may be produced by a slightly warm so- 
lution of sodium or potassium sulphide. 

4. — Bromine, 5 gr. ; potassium bromide, 
5 dwt. : water, 10 oz. : boil the silver in 
this usually 2 to 5 minutes, then polish 
with rouge. 

5. — Dissolve sulphate of copper, 2 
dwts. ; nitrate of potash, 1 dwt. ; ammo- 
nium chloride, 2 dwts., in a little acetic 
acid. Warm the article and apply the 
solution with a camel's-hair pencil and 
expose to the fumes of sulphur in a closed 
box. Parts not to be colored must be 
coated with wax. 

6. — Dip the clean silver article in a so- 
lution of sulphide of potassium (liver of 
sulphur), 2 dr. to 1 pt. of water. ^Heat 
this solution to a temperature of 175° F. 
Immerse for a few seconds only, when 
the article becomes blue black. For a 
velvet black, dip the article, previous to 
oxidizing, in a solution of mercurous ni- 
trate and water, and rinse. Then dip in 
the sulphide solution as above. For a 
brown shade, oxidize in the potassium 
sulphide as above, then dip in a liquid 
composed of 10 parts of blue vitriol and 
5 parts of sal ammoniac to 100 parts of 
vinegar. After oxidation, brush with a 
scratch brush very lightly, to brighten 
and variegate the surface. Tliere are 
many other methods. 



Platinizing 

Place some platinum in a small quan- 
tity of aqua regia or nitrohydrochloric 
acid, and keep it in a warm place for a 
few days, when it will have dissolved. As 
soon as it has dissolved, evaporate the 
liquid at a gentle heat until it is as thick 
as honey, so as to get rid of the excess 
of the nitric and hydrochloric acids. Add 
a little water, and it is ready for use. 
A dozen drops of this solution goes a 
long way in platinizing silver. The op- 
eration is performed in a small glass or 
beaker, covered with a watch glass to 
keep in the fumes, and placed in a little 
sand in a saucer to equalize the heat. 

ZINC 
Blacking 

1. — Chloride of platinum, painted on 
zinc, gives a very dead black. 

2. — Zinc may be given a fine black 
color, according to Knaffl, by cleaning its 
surface with sand and sulphuric acid and 
immersing for an instant in a solution 
composed of 4 parts of sulphate of nickel 
and ammonia in 40 parts of water, acidu- 
lated with 1 part of sulohuric acid, wash- 
ing, and drying it. The black coating 
adheres firmly, and takes a bronze color 
under the burnisher. Brass may be 
stained black with a liquid containing 'j1 
parts of arsenious acid, 4 parts of hydro- 
chloric acid and 1 part of sulphuric acid, 
in 80 parts of water. 

3. — A weak solution of sulphate of cop- 
per, and then with a decoction of log- 
wood. 

4. — Clean the zinc by dipping in an 
acid ; rinse, and plunge into the follow- 
ing : Nickel ammonium sulphide, 4 parts ; 
sulphuric acid, 1 part ; water, 40 parts. 
Mix. Wash the article, and dry care- 
fully. 

5. — Treat with an acidulated solution 
of antimony chloride, thus : Hydrochlo- 
ric acid, 6 parts ; antimony chloride, 10 
parts ; alcohol, 100 parts. Mix. When 
the desired shade is attained, dry, and rub 
with some good drying oil. Give 2 or 3 
coats. 

Bronzing 

1. — Mix thoroughly 30 parts of sal am- 
moniac, 10 parts of oxalate of potash and 
1,000 parts of vinegar. Apply with a 
brush or rag several times until the 
desired tint is produced. 

2. — Puscher employs acetate of lead for 
this purpose. On applying this substance, 
mixed with a minium preparation, a 
reddish brown tinge is obtained. The 
cupola of the synagogue at Nuremberg 
was thus colored as an experiment, a long 



[216] 



(Zinc) 



(Zinc) 



time ago, and to all appearance is yet un- 
affected by the weather. By adding other 
bases lighter or darker tints of gray and 
yellow may be obtained, giving the zinc 
work the appearance of carved stone. 
With a solution of chlorate of copper the 
preparation darkens the sheets of zinc. 

Green Patina 

1. — Make the following solution : So- 
dium hyposulphite, 2 parts ; sulphuric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 20 parts. Mix : fil- 
ter off the precipitated sulphur, and heat 



the filtrate. Plunge the object into the 
hot solution ; watch the coloration as it 
progresses, and when the desired tint is 
secured remove, let dry, and varnish with 
copal. 

2. — Zinc Roofs. — Cleanse the zinc of aR 
dirt, and coat it repeatedly with a diluted 
solution of copper nitrate. When the 
whole roof has been coppered over, cover 
it with a likewise diluted solution of car- 
bonate of ammonia. On this coat of cop- 
per patina readily forms. 



Bronzing for Zinc, by Simple Immersion. 



^ ^ 



r2 ^ Ol (L, 
ra.3 ti OJ 

o ^a a 
*e<M Go 

2030 

P-i w 



u 



V2 



2 .^^r:: 






u"*^ e s r. 



8.2 



pt. dr. dr. dr. dr. oz. oz. dr. dr. 

1 5 Black. 

1 .. 1 Black. 

1 .. 1 1 Dark gray. 

2 .. .. 1 1 Dark gray. 



X* 



X 



X 



Dark gray. 

Green gray. 

Ked— Boil. 

Copper color. Plates so c a z 

Copper color, with agitation. 

Purple — Boil. 



•Made to the consistency of cream. 



[217] 



1 



CHAPTER V. 



ELECTROMETALLURGY AND HOT AND COLD COATING OF 

METALS 



PRELIMINARY TREATMENT 

Electrometallurgy has two departments, 
which are distinguished by the prepara- 
tion of the surfaces to be coated. 

Electroplating is the production of ad- 
hesive deposits, and depends on the abso- 
lute cleanness of the metal surface coat- 
ed. This will be treated first. 
Cleansing 

1. — Copper, brass, zinc and the noble 
metals are cleaned by the suitable acids 
which act on them. Such cleaning solu- 
tions may be prepared for different metals 
as follows : 

Sul- Hydro- 
Water. Nitric, phuric. chloric 
For copper and 

brass 100 50 100 2 

ron 100 3 8 2 

Iron (cast) 100 3 12 3 

Zinc 100 .. 10 

Silver 100 10 

It is best to make two such solutions, 
one being reserved for a final dip, during 
which a strong action occurs upon the 
surface. As this becomes weaker it can 
be used for the first cleansing, accom- 
panied by occasional rubbing with sand, 
etc., according to the nature of the ob- 
ject. 

Lead, tin and pewter must not be 
placed in acid, but are cleaned by aid of 
caustic soda. 

Objects must be carefully freed from 
acids if they are to be transferred to sil- 
ver or gold solutions, but less care is 
necessary for objects cleaned in soda, nor 
is the same care necessary in transferring 
objects cleaned in acids to an acid cop- 
pering solution. In such cases the best 
plan is to dip into clean water and at 
once transfer to the depositing cell. 

2. — Cleansing and Preparing Objects 
for Electroplating. — -The first and most 
important operation in the electro-deposi- 
tion of one metal upon another is to 
effect a thorough chemical cleansing of 
the surface of the metal upon which the 



coating is to be deposited, for if this la 
not accomplished the deposited metal will 
not adhere to the surface. 

In cleansing, different metals usually 
require a somewhat different treatment. 
The surface of most metals, when clean, 
soon becomes coated with a film of oxide 
when exposed to the air, especially when 
the surface exposed is wet, and to avoid 
this it is usually necessary to proceea 
with the plating immediately after cleans- 
ing- , 

Before proceeding to cleanse the arti- 
cles they are usually ''trussed" with cop- 
per wire to avoid the necessity of hand- 
ling them during the operation or after- 
ward, until the plating is finished. A 
very slight contact with the hand is often 
SuflBicient to make i second cleansing 
necessary. 

If the article to be plated presents a 
smooth, finished or polished surface, the 
deposit will be "bright." If, on the con- 
trary, the surface is rough or unpolished, 
the 'deposit will ordinarily have a dead 
luster. If left too long in the acid dips 
used in cleansing, the polished surface 
is apt to have its finish deadened. No 
interval should be allowed bet^\ een the 
various operations of cleansing. 

Copper and Copper Alloys. — Caustic 
potash, 1 lb. ; soft water, 1 gal. Heat 
nearly to boiling in a cast-iron pot pro- 
vided with a cover. Brush to remove 
any loosely adhering foreign matters, 
truss, and suspend for a time in the hot 
lye ; usually, a few minutes will suffice 
if the article is not heavily lacquered. 
If any of its parts are joined with solder 
it should not be allowed to remain too 
long immersed, as the caustic liquid at- 
tacks solders, and their solution black- 
ens copper. On removing, rinse thorough- 
ly in running water. If the articles are 
much oxidized, pickle in a bath composed 
of 1 gal. of water and 1 pt. of sulphuric 
acid until the darker portion is removed. 
Rinse in running water, and dip in the 
following solution : Soft water, 1 gal. ; 



r?i9i 



(Cleaning Metals) 



(Pickling Baths) 



cyanide of potassium, common, 8 oz. 
Remove from the bath and quickly go 
over every part with a brush and fine 
pumice stone powder moistened with the 
cyanide solution. Some electroplaters 
prefer to give the articles a preliminary 
"brightening" dip in nitric acid, or a 
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids and 
salt, followed by rinsing in water, but 
the cyanide, aided by the mechanical ac- 
tion of the pumice and brush, does very 
well without it in most cases. After 
the scouring dip the work momentarily 
in the cyanide solution, rinse quickly in 
running water, and transfer immediately 
to the plating bath. Where the article 
is to receive a deposit of gold or silver, 
its surface is usually softened by slightly 
amalgamating it with mercury to insure 
perfect adhesion of the deposited metal. 
The amalgamating is performed by dip- 
ping the article, after the cyanide scour- 
ing operation, for a few seconds in a so- 
lution of mercuric nitrate, 1-7 oz. ; sul- 
phuric acid, 1-5 oz. ; water, 1 gal. Stir 
until the solution becomes clear before 
using. Rinse the work quickly on com- 
ing from the mercury dip, and transfer 
to the plating solution. 

The acid, cyanide and mercury dips 
may be kept in glass or stoneware jars 
(avoid jars with lead glazing), provided 
with covers to prevent evaporation. 

A "dead luster" is imparted to arti- 
cles of copper or copper alloy by dipping 
them for a few minutes in a bath com- 
; posed of nitric acid (36°), 20 lb.; sul- 
phuric acid (66°), 10 lb.; salt, 1-10 lb.; 
Kinc sulphate 1-10 lb. Mix the acids 
gradually, add the zinc salt, then the 
salt, a little at a time (out of doors to 
avoid the acid vapors), stir well together, 
and let it get cold before using. Rinse 
thoroughly, and pass through the cyanide 
before putting in the plating bath. 

Iron, Cast. — Cast iron is freed from 
grease, etc., by dipping in a hot alkali 
solution used for a similar purpose with 
copper, and after rinsing thoroughly is 
pickled in water containing about 1% of 
sulphuric acid for several hours, then 
rinsed in water and scoured with fine, 
sharp sand or pumice and a fiber bru^h. 
It is then rinsed, and returned to the 
acid pickle for a short time, rinsed again, 
and put into the plating bath directly. If 
more than 1% of acid is used in the 
pickle the time of immersion must be 
shortened, otherwise the iron will be deep- 
ly corroded, and the cnrbon which the 
raetal contains, and which is not affected 
by the acid, will not yield without a 
great deal of labor to the sand and brush. 
Cast iron does not cild or silver well by 



direct deposit. Copper or bronze depos- 
its are better, though not perfect ; but 
if the iron is tinned, the coat is adher- 
ent, and will readily receive the other 
metals. 

Iron, Wrought. — The cleansing of 
wrought iron, if much oxidized, is effected 
in the same manner as cast iron, but it 
will bear a stronger pickle and a longer 
exposure. Whitened, filed or polished 
iron may be treated like steel. 

Steel. — Dip in the caustic lye used for 
copper, etc., rinse thoroughly, scour with 
moistened pumice powder, rinse, and pass 
through the following dip : Water, 1 gal. ; 
hydrochloric acid, 4 lb. Rinse quickly 
(but thoroughly) and plunge in the 
bath. 

Clean wrought iron and steel gild well 
without an intermediary coating in hot 
electrogilding baths. It is difficult to ob- 
tain an adherent coating of silver on 
these metals without interposing an in- 
termediate coating of copper or brass, 
which renders the further operation of 
silverplating easy. 

Dipping Acid 

This name is given to a mixture which 
is frequently used for imparting a bright 
surface to brass work. When required 
for dipping brass work preparatory to 
nickelplating it is commonly composed 
of sulphuric acid, 4 lb. ; nitric acid, 2 lb. ; 
water, 2 qt. In making the above mix- 
ture the nitric acid is first added to the 
water, and the sulphuric acid (ordinary 
oil of vitriol) is then to be _ gradually 
poured in, and the mixture stirred with 
a glass rod. When cold it is ready for 
use. The mixture should be kept in a 
stoneware vessel, which should be cohered 
with a sheet of stout glass. The dipping 
should always be conducted either in an 
outer yard or near a fireplace, so that 
the fumes may escape, as they are exceed- 
iri^ly irritating to the lungs when inhaled. 
The instant the articles are removed from 
the dipping bath, they should be plunged 
in a vessel of water. 

Pickling Bath 

Pickling Bath, — Cast iron before nick- 
eled requires to be placed in a cold acid 
solution or "pickle" to dissolve or loosen 
the oxide from its surface. The pickle 
may be prepared in a wooden tub or tank 
from either of the following formulae : 
Sulphuric acid ( oil of vitriol ) , % lb. ; 
water, 1 gal. Cast-iron work immersed in 
this bath for twenty minutes to half hour 
will generally have its coating of oxide 
sufficiently loosened to be easily removed 
by means of a stiff brush, sand and 



[220] 



(Plating with Aluminum) 



(Plating with Brass) 



water. When it is desired that the arti- 
cles should come out of the bath bright 
instead of the dull black color which 
they present when pickled in the plain 
sulphuric acid bath the following formula 
may be adopted : Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. ; 
water, 1 gal. Dissolve in the above 2 oz. 
of zinc, which may conveniently be ap- 
plied in its granulated form. When dis- 
solved add % lb. of nitric acid and mix 
well. 

The greatest care should be used in 
cleansing or pickling before nickeling. 
The fine iron work which is made at 
Wernigerode and other places in tne 
Hartz Mountains, is believed to be 
cleansed in this manner. Work of this 
class is inexpensive and is very artistic. 

Scratch- Brushing 

The scratch brush is often resorted to 
to remove the dead luster on or to impart 
a smooth surface to an object. They 
are usually made of brass or steel wire, 
and of a variety of shapes to isuit the 
object. 

The wheel brushes are used on the 
lathe or grinding head, the objects being 
manipulated in contact with the rapidly 
revolving brush. The brush is usually 
kept moistened by a small stream of 
water while in use. 

PLATING BY NAMES OF METAL 
DEPOSITED 

Aluminum 

1. — ^Aluminum may be deposited on 
copper from a dilute solution of the 
double chloride of aluminum and ammo- 
nia. 

2. — Aluminum is one of the most dif- 
ficult and uncertain of metals to deposit 
electrolytically. The following recipe is 
given by Herman Reinbold, who states 
that it furnishes excellent results : Fitty 
parts by weight of alum are dissolved in 
300 of water and to this is added 10 parts 
of aluminum chloride. The solution is 
heated to 200° F., and when cold 39 
parts of cyanide of potassium are added. 
A feeble current should be used. 

Brass 

1. — De Salzede's Process. — 12 parts cy- 
anide of potassium ; 610 parts carbo- 
nate of potassium ; 48 parts sulphate of 
zinc ; 25 parts chloride of copper ; 305 
parts nitrate of ammonia ; 5,000 parts of 
water. The cyanide is to be dissolved in 
120 parts of the water, and the carbonate 
of potash, sulphate of zinc and chloride of 
copper are to be dissolved in the remain- 
der of the water, the temperature of 
which is to be raised to about 150° F. 



When the salts are dissolved, the nitrate 
of ammonia is to be added, and the mix- 
ture well stirred until the latter is all 
dissolved. The solution should be al- 
lowed to stand for several days before 
using, and the clear liquor separated from 
any sediment that may have deposited at 
the bottom of the vessel. 

2. — ^Cyanide of potassium, 50 parts ; 
carbonate of potassium, 500 parts ; sul- 
phate of zinc, 35 parts ; chloride of cop- 
per, 15 parts; water, 5,000 parts. This 
solution is to be made up in the same 
way as No. 1. 

3. — Bronzing Solution. — This solution 
is the same as No. 1, except that 25 parts 
chloride of tin are substituted for the sul- 
phate of zinc. 

4. — Bronzing Solution. — This is the 
same as No. 2, with the exception that 12 
parts chloride of tin are substituted for 
the sulphate of zinc. This solution is 
worked warm, that is, at about 97° F. 

The Brass Bathsh. — a. — Where the 
ordinary cheap commercial cyanide is em- 
ployed, the following answers very well; 
Sulphate of copper, 4 oz. ; sulphate of 
zinc, 4 to 5 oz. ; water, 1 gal. 

Dissolve and precipitate with 30 oz. 
carbonate of soda ; allow to settle, decant 
the clear liquid, and wash the precipitate 
several times with fresh water — after as 
many settings. Add to the washed pre- 
cipitates : Carbonate of soda, 15 oz. ; 
bisulphite of soda, 7i/^ oz. ; water, 1 gal. 

Stir to effect solution of these last two, 
then stir in ordinary cyanide of potas- 
sium until the liquid becomes clear and 
colorless. Filter if much iron or iron 
oxide (derived from impure zinc salt and 
cyanide) remains suspended in the liquid. 
An additional i^ oz. or so of the cyanide 
improves the conductivity of the solu- 
tion. 

b. — Management of the Bath. — The 
losses of the bath are to be repaired by 
the addition of copper and zinc salts (and 
arsenious acid) dissolved in fresh cyanide 
and water. 

The operator determines the require- 
ments from the rapidity of the deposit, 
its condition, color, etc. 

The difficulty in brass electrotyping, 
especially with small baths, is in keeping 
the uniformity of the color of the deposit, 
as the electric current, having to decom- 
pose two salts, each offering a different 
resistance, must, according to its inten- 
sity, vary the color and composition of the 
deposit. A feeble current principally de- 
composes the copper salt and results in 
a red deposit : while too great intensity in 
the current decomposes the zinc salt too 
rapidly and the deposit is a white or 
bluish w hite alloy. If the deposit has an 



[221] 



(Plating with Brass) 



(Plating with Bronze) 



earthy or ocherous appearance, or if the 
liquid is blue or greenish, the solution is 
deficient in cyanide. When in proper 
working order the liquor is colorless. If 
the coating becomes dull and unequal, a 
slight addition of arsenious acid will 
usually improve it. 

If the deposit is too red, use more 
battery power or add more zinc salt ; if 
too white, decrease the current or add 
more copper salt. The specific gravity ot 
the bath may vary from 5° to ±2" 
Baum6 ; when it exceeds this latter grav- 
ity it should be diluted with fresh water 
to decrease the electric resistance. 

If the brass deposit is irregular, re- 
move the articles from the bath, rinse, 
scratch-brush, and put again into the 
bath, until the color and thickness of the 
deposit are satisfactory. Scratch-brush 
again, and, if necessary, rinse in hot 
water, dry in warm white wood sawdust, 
and put in the stove room. The last three 
operations are indispensable for hollow 
pieces. 

In the disposition of the brass plating 
bath it is always necessary to have all 
the articles suspended at about equal dis- 
tances from the anodes. 

The bath may be subdivided by several 
anodes, forming partitions, so that each 
loaded rod is between two anodes. 

The anodes should always be removed 
"when the bath is not in use. 

In order that the brass electroplating 
of zinc or copper may be lasting the 
deposit must not be too thin, and must 
be scratch-brushed, washed in lime water, 
and dried in the stove room. 

Generally ten to twenty-five minutes' 
exposure in the bath suffices in ordinary 
practice to throw on a good coating. 
Oast and wrought iron, lead and its al- 
loys require a bath richer in the metals 
than when brassplating zinc or its alloys. 
The battery power should also be greater. 
For lead the bath works better warm 
(at about 90° F.). When once placed 
in the brass bath articles should not be 
moved about, as there is a tendency under 
such circumstances to the formation of a 
red deposit. 

In brassplating wire the hot bath is 
usually employed. As before mentioned, 
the vessel containing the bath usually 
consists in an oblong open iron boiler, 
lined with sheet brass anodes, and heated 
by fire, steam or hot water. A stout 
copper or brass rod in the direction of 
the length of the boilf^r rests upon the 
edges, from contact with which it is insu- 
lated by pieces of rubber tubing. The 
rod is connected with the zinc pole of 
the battery. The binding wires are re- 



moved from the coil, the wires loosened, 
and the ends bent together into a loop. 
The wire is then dipped into a pickle of 
dilute sulphuric acid, and hung upon a 
stout round wooden peg fastened in the 
wall, so that the coil may be made to 
rotate easily. After a scrubbing with 
wet sharp sand and a hard brush the 
roil is given a primary coating of coppeb. 
It is then suspended to the horizontal 
rod, where only a part of the coil at a 
time dips into the solution and receives 
the deposit. The coil is then turned now 
and then one-balf or one-fourth its cir- 
cumference. By dipping thp coil entirely 
into the liquid the operation is not so 
successful. 

The wires are washed, dried in saw- 
dust, and then in the stove room, and 
lastly passed through a draw plate to give 
them the fine polish of true brass wires. 

The temperature at which the hot bath 
is commonly used varies between 130' 
and 140° F. 

Bronze Baths 

1. — Potassic cyanide, 50 parts ; potas- 
sic carbonate, 500 parts ; tin chloride, 12 
parts ; cupric chloride, 15 parts ; water, 
5.000 parts. This bath is u«ed at a 
temperature not exceeding 36° C. 

2. — Bronzing Electro-brassed Work, 
Green Bronze. — Mix into a paste with 
water the following substances : Chro- 
mate of lead (chrome yellow), 2 oz. ; 
Prussian blue, 2 oz, ; plumbago, % lb. ; 
sienna powder, % lb. ; lac carmine, % 
lb. When applying the above composi- 
tion a small quantity of sulphide of am- 
monia or chloride of platinum solution 
may be added. 

3. — Solution*! for Deoositing Brass or 
Bronzp ; Dr. Heeren's Process. — A brass- 
ing solution may be prepared by employ- 
ing a large excess of zinc to a very small 
proportion of copper as follows : Sulphate 
of copper, 1 part ; sulphate of zinc, 8 
parts; cyanide of potassium, 18 parts. 
The ingredients are to be dissolved in 
separate portions of warm water. The 
copper and zinc solutions are to be mixed 
flnd the cyanide solution then added, 
when 250 parts of distilled water are to 
he added and the mixture well stirred. 
The bath is to be used at the boiling 
temperature with two Bunsen cells. By 
this process, it is said that very rapid 
deposits of brass have been obtained upon 
articles of copper, zinc, Britannia metal, 
etc. 

4. — French Method of Bronzing Elec- 
fro-braissed Zinc Work ; Steel Bronze. — 
This is obtained by moistening the arti- 
cles with a dilute solution of chloride of 



[222] 



(Plating with Copper) 



(Plating with Copper) 



platinum and slightly heating them. 
Since this bronze is liable to scale off 
with friction, it should not be applied in 
successive doses, but the solution used 
should be of such a strength that the 
desired effect may be obtained if possible 
by a single application. Copper bronze, 
that is electro-brass with an excess of 
copper, may be darkened by dipping it 
into a warm and weak solution of chlo- 
ride of antimony (butter of antimony) 
in hydrochloric acid. Sometimes the 
color will be violet instead of black. 

5. — French Method of Bronzing Elec- 
tro-brassed Zinc Work ; Green or Antique 
Bronze. — Dissolve in 100 parts of acetic 
acid or in 200 parts of good vinegar, 30 
parts of carbonate of ammonia or sal 
ammoniac, and 10 parts each of common 
salt, cream of tartar and acetate of cop- 
per and add a little water. Mix well and 
smear the object with it, allow it to dry 
at the ordinary temperature, from twen- 
ty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end 
of that time the article will be found to 
be entirely covered with verdigris, which 
presents various tints. It is then to be 
brushed, but more especially the promi- 
nent parts, with a waxed brush, that is a 
brush passed over a lump of yellow bees- 
wax. The relief parts may then be "set 
off" with hematite, chrome yellow, or 
other suitable colors. Light touches with 
ammonia impart a blue shade to the 
green parts ; carbonate of ammonia deep- 
ens the color. 

Copper 

1. — Where it is intended to simply coat 
or plate another metal or alloy, the elec- 
tro deposit of copper is usually obtained 
by the decomposition of a double salt, 
such as the cyanide of copper and potas- 
sium. This process is adapted to most 
metals, and affords a fine uniform deposit. 
The following is a good bath of this de- 
scription : Water ( soft ) , 1 gal. ; acetate 
of copper (cryst.), S^^ oz. ; carbonate of 
soda (cryst), S'^^ oz. ; bisulphate of 
soda, 3 oz. ; cyanide of potassium (pure), 
71^ oz. 

Moisten the copper salt with water to 
form a paste (otherwise it is apt to float 
on the liquid) ; stir in the next carbonate 
of soda with a little more water, then 
the bisulphite, and finally the cyanide 
with the rest of the water. Whpn solu- 
tion is complete the liquid should be col- 
orl<^ss. If not, add cyanide until it is. 

The bath may be employed hot or cold, 
and requires a moderately strong circuit 
of electricity. A copper plate forms the 
anode, and it should expose surface 
enough to supply the loss of copper — at 



If^ast a surface equal to that of the work. 
It must be removed when the bath is not 
in use. 

If the liquid becomes colored, more cya- 
nide must be added. 

Large pieces are generally kept hang- 
ing motionless in the bath while the 
plating is in progress ; small articles are 
moved about as much as possible, espe- 
cially if the bath is warm. 

The formula for the bath given above 
requires pure cyanide of potassium, and 
where the commercial article, which is 
often very impure, is used instead, con- 
siderable allowance must be made. 

2. — Alkaline Copper Solution.-^The 
best alkaline copper solution is that intro- 
duced by Mr. A. Watt, and subsequently 
modified by Mr. J. T. Sprague. Dissolve 
8 oz. of copper sulphate in 1 qt. hot rain 
■water and set aside to cool. When cool, 
add liquid ammonia, while stirring with a 
stick or glass rod. At first a green pre- 
cipitate will fall, and then this will dis- 
solve on adding more ammonia, until the 
whole solution assumes a lovely blue tint. 
Dilute this with an equal bulk of cold 
rain water, and add to it enough solution 
of potassium cyanide, while stirring, to 
destroy the fine blue color of the ammo- 
nia sulphate and give the color of old ale 
to the solution. Set this aside for a few 
hours, then pass it through a calico filter 
and make it up to a gallon of solution 
with rain water. This solution may be 
worked cold, but the rate of deposition 
is increased and the deposited copper of 
improved quality when the solution is 
hen t^^d to a temperature of from 110° 
to 130° F. 

3. — Aluminum. — a. — Copper cyanide, 6 
parts ; potassium cyanide, 9 parts ; sodi- 
v^ phosphate, 9 parts; distilled water, 
100 parts. 

b. — According to a Continental contem- 
porary, it is possible to obtain adhesive 
roats of copper on aluminum by the fol- 
lowing method : First clean the alumi- 
num in a warm solution of alkaline car- 
bonate, thus making its surface rough 
and porous; it is next washed thoroughly 
in running water, and dipped into a hot 
solution of hydrochloric acid of about 5 
per cent, strength", again washed in clean 
water, and then placed in a somewhat 
concentrated acid solution of copper sul- 
phate, until a uniform mptallic deposit 
is formed : it is then again thoroughly 
washed and returned to the copper sul- 
phate bath, when an electric current is 
passed until a coating of copper of the 
required thickness is obtained. 

4. — Eectrotyping Non-conducting Ma- 
terials, New Process for. — For electrotyp- 



[223] 



(Plating with Copper) 



(Plating with Copper) 



ing on non-conducting materials, such as 
china and porcelain, a new and ingenious 
process has been lately introduced in 
France. Sulphur is dissolved in oil of 
spike lavender to a syrupy consistency; 
then chloride of gold or chloride of plati- 
num is dissolved in ether, and the two 
solutions mixed under a gentle heat. The 
compound is next evaporated until of the 
thickness of ordinary paint, in which con- 
dition it is applied with a brush to such 
portions of the china, glass, or other fab- 
ric as it is desired to cover, according to 
the design or pattern, with the electro- 
metallic deposit. The objects are baked 
in the usual way before they are im- 
mersed in the bath. 

5. — Electro-coppering Flowers, Insects, 
etc. — To render non-metallic substances 
conductive (Parkes). 

a. — ^A mixture is made from the fol- 
lowing ingredients : Wax or tallow, 1 oz. ; 
india-rubber, 1 dram ; asphalt, 1 oz. ; 
spirit of turpentine, 1% fl.oz. The in- 
dia-rubber and asphalt are to be dis- 
solved in the turpentine, the wax is 
then to be melted, and the former addea 
to it and incorporated by stirring. To 
this is added 1 oz. of a solution of phos- 
phorus in bisulphide of carbon in the 
proportion of 1 part of the former to 15 
parts of the latter. The articles being 
attached to a wire are dipped in this 
mixture; they are next dipped in a weak 
solution of nitrate of silver, and when 
the black appearance of the silver is fully 
developed the article is washed in water; 
it is afterward dipped in a weak solution 
of chloride of gold and again washed. 
Being now coated with a film of gold, it 
is ready for immersion in the copper bath. 

b. — Wax and deer's fat, of each ^ lb. 
Melt together and add phosphorus, 10 
grams, dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, 
150 grams. The wax mixture must be 
allowed to become nearly cool, when the 
phosphorus solution is to be added very 
carefully through a tube dipping under 
the surface of the mixture. Stir thor- 
oughly. Molds prepared from this com- 
position are rendered conductive by being 
first dipped in a solution of nitrate of 
silver, then rinsed, and afterward dipped 
in a weak solution of chloride of gold, 
and again washed, when they are ready 
for the coppering solution. 

6. — Iron and Steel. — The following for- 
mulae require a cyanide containing 70 to 
75% (a good average) of pure potassium 
cyanide. 

a. — Cold Bath. — Acetate of copper, 3 
r-r.: carbonate of soda, 61-5 oz. ; bisul- 
phite of soda, 3 1-5 oz. ; cyanide of potas- 



sium, 31/4 oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; aqua am- 
monia, 2 1-5 fl.oz. Prepare as before. 

b. — Warm Bath. — Acetate of copper, 
3 1-5 oz. ; carbonate of soda, 3 1-5 oz. ; bi- 
sulphite of soda, 1 1-5 oz. ; cyanide of po- 
tassium, 4% oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; aqua 
ammonia, 1 4-5 fl.oz. 

7. — Zinc. — For small articles of zinc, 
which are coppered in a perforated ladle 
and in nearly boiling baths : Acetate 
of copper, 16 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, 3^^ 
oz. ; cyanide of potassium, 25 oz. ; aqua 
ammonia, 5^/^ oz. ; water, 4 to 5% gal. 

In the preparation of these baths the 
salts are all dissolved together, except the 
copper acetate and ammonia, which are 
added after dissolving together in a small 
quantity of the water. 

The deep blue color of the ammonia- 
copper solution should entirely disappear 
on mixing it with the other solution ; 
otherwise it becomes necessary to add 
more cyanide. 

The cold bath is put into well joined 
tanks of oak or fir wood, coated inside 
with gutta percha or asphaltum (genu- 
ine). The vertical sides are also covered 
with sheets of copper, all connected with 
the last carbon or copper of the battery 
by a stout copper wire with well cleaned 
ends, the other pole of the battery being 
in similar connection with a stout brass 
rod extending the length of the tank 
(without any point of contact with the 
anodes), and from which the work is sus- 
pended by hooks or trusses in the bath. 

With a thin deposit the coating is suflS- 
ciently bright to be considered finished 
after being rinsed and dried. But if the 
operation is more protracted the deposit 
has a dead luster on account of its thick- 
ness, and if a bright luster is desired it ia 
necessary to use the scratch-brush. 

The hot baths are usually put into 
stoneware vessels heated by a water or 
steam bath, or into an enameled cast-iron 
kettle placed directly over a fire. The 
vessels are lined inside with copper, the 
edges of the vessel being varnished, or 
support a wooden ring upon which rests 
a brass circle connected with the zinc pole 
of the battery. The objects to be^ elec- 
troplated are suspended from this ring. 

The hot process is more rapid than the 
cold, and is especially adapted to those 
a rticles which are difficult to cleanse. 
The articles are kept in continual agita- 
tion, which permits of the employment of 
a strong current of electricity. Small ar- 
ticles of zinc are placed in a perforated 
stoneware or enameled ladle, at the bot- 
tom of which is attached a copper wire 
which is wound up around the handle and 
connected with the zinc pole of the bat- 
tery. It is sufficient that one of the 



[224] 



(Plating with Gold) 



(Plating with Gold) 



small articles touches the wire for all 
to be affected by the current, as they are 
in contact with each other. The ladle 
must be continually agitated, so as to 
change the points of contact of the ob- 
jects. What has been said in regard to 
electro brassplating will apply here. 

Gold 

1. — In the practice of electroplating 
with gold the bath employed is usually 
heated, as the deposits obtained in such 
a bath are more homogeneous, tenacious 
and durable, and of a better color, besides 
which recommendation a greater quan- 
tity of metal may be deposited satis- 
factorily from it in a given time than 
from a cold bath. 

Owing to the cost of the metal to be 
deposited very large surfaces are rarely 
required to be electroplated, and as these 
baths become worn out and must be re- 
placed by fresh solutions after a short 
time, they are usually, as a matter of 
economy and convenience, used in as 
small a vessel as the circumstances will 
admit of. These vessels may be of glass, 
porcelain, or porcelain-enameled iron. 
The latter serve the purpose admirably 
(if the enamel is good). They should be 
heated over the water bath or by means 
of steam. 

The same bath does not answer very 
well for all metals — either the bath must 
be modified to suit the metal or the latter 
must be previously coated with another 
metal to suit the conditions. Gold depos- 
its are obtained with the greatest facility 
upon silver or copper, their rich alloys, 
or other metals coated with them. With 
these a hot bath (at about 170° F.) and 
a moderately strong current give good 
results. With alloys, such as German 
silver, the best results are obtained with 
a weak bath, barely warm. Steel and 
iron, when not coated with copper, re- 
quire an intense current and a very hot 
bath. Lead, zinc, tin, antimony and bis- 
muth alloys of, or containing much of 
these, are preferably coated with copper 
before electrogilding. 

2.— (Operations Connected with Electro- 
deposition. — Solution for protecting pla- 
ted work, which is to be gilded in a hot 
cyanide bath, from receiving the gold de- 
posit upon parts of the ornamental work : 
Clear rosin, 10 parts ; yellow beeswax, 6 
parts ; best red sealing wax, 4 parts ; 
jeweler's rouge, 3 parts. The three first 
named substances are to be thoroughly 
melted with gentle stirring, and the 
rouere, which is the peroxide of iron, 
gradually added and incorporated with 
stirring. The article to which the stop- 



ping-off varnish has been applied should 
never be placed either in a hot or cold 
bath until it has become thoroughly dry 
and hard. 

Aluminum. — Gold chloride, 2 parts; 
potassium cyanide, 2 parts ; sodium phos- 
phate, 2 parts; water, distilled, 100 parts. 

Amateurs' Gilding Solution. — The best 
and cheapest solution for amateur electro- 
gilding, and also for operators in a small 
way of business, is the double cyanide of 
gold and potassium solution made by the 
battery process. This contains some ox- 
ide of potash, but if made up of pure 
gold and pure 98% cyanide of potassium, 
it will yield good results at once, and con- 
tinue to give them for years if kept in 
proper working condition. This solution 
is made up in the following manner : Pro- 
cure 5 dwts. pure gold ribbon, leaf, or 
wire (and divide it into 2 parts), 3 dwts. 
pure white 98% cyanide of potassium 
and 1 qt. of distilled water. Dissolve 
the cyanide of potassium in the dis-' 
tilled water made hot in a good enam- 
eled saucepan, and keep it at nearly 
scalding heat while making and working 
the gilding solution. Make up a battery 
of two Bunsen cells or three Daniel cells 
in series. Hang one strip of gold from 
the wire leading to the negative element 
of the battery, and the other strip to the 
wire leading to the positive element of the 
battery. Get a small, clean, white porous 
battery cell, nearly fill it with cyanide of 
potassium solution, place it in the sauce- 
pan and suspend in the porous cell the 
strip of gold connected to the zinc ele- 
ment of the battery. Immerse the other 
strip of gold in the outer cyanide solution, 
and pass current (from the battery) 
from one to the other for some two or 
three hours. During that time some of! 
the gold will have dissolved off the anode j 
strip and entered into combination with 
the cyanide of potassium solution to form 
the double cyanide of gold and potassium 
gilding bath, but this will not have pene- 
trated into the porous cell, nor will the 
strip of gold therein have suffered any 
loss. If at the end of this time a piece 
of German silver, suspended from the 
cathode wire in the outer solution, re- 
ceives a fair coat of gold in a few mo- 
ments, the bath is ready for gilding work, 
ihe contents of the porous cell may be 
poured into the outer solution, both strips 
of gold used as the anode, and the work 
may proceed with current from one or 
more cells, as may be required. At first 
there may be too much free cyanide, and 
the deposit may in consequence be too 
dark, but this fault will soon be corrected 
it the anode plates are wholly immersed 



[225] 



(Plating with Gold) 



(Plating with Gold) 



while gilding. If the contrary condition 
exists, and the anode plates are dirty, or 
do not dissolve freely, add a very little 
more cyanide to the solution. This will 
be found to be the cheapest solution, be- 
cause there is no loss of material in mak- 
ing it up. If the whole of the gold strip 
dissolves in the cyanide solution, the bath 
will not be too rich in gold, as a very 
useful strength is 2 dwts. of gold in the 
quart of solution. A larger quantity may 
be made in the same manner in the same 
proportions. 

Brass. — Jewelry. — 1. — For Producing a 
Matted Surface on Brass Articles of Jew- 
elry, as Brooches, Lockets, etc. — First 
dip them for an instant in a mixture 
composed of equal parts of sulphuric and 
nitric acids, to which a small quantity of 
common salt is added ; plunge immediate- 
ly in cold water. Rinse in one or two 
other waters, then immerse in the gilding 
bath, in which, after a moment's immer- 
sion, they acquire the desired color of 
gold. After rinsing in hot water they are 
finally dried in hot boxwood sawdust. 

2. — French Gilding for Cheap Jew- 
elry. — The bath for gilding recommended 
by Roseleur is composed of pryophosphate 
of soda or potassa, 800 grams ; hydrocy- 
anic acid (prussic acid), 8 grams; chlo- 
ride of gold crystallized, 20 grams ; dis- 
tilled water, 10 liters. The pyrophos- 
phate of soda is generally employed and 
this may be prepared by melting at a 
white heat ordinary crystallized phos- 
phate of soda in a crucible. The quan- 
tity of gold given in the above formula 
represents the grams of the pure metal 
dissolved by aqua regia. In making the 
bath 9 liters of water are put into a por- 
celain vessel and the pyrophosphate 
added, with stirring a little at a time, 
moderate heat being applied until all the 
salt is dissolved. The solution is then fil- 
tered and allowed to cool. The chloride 
of gold is allowed to crystallize, the crys- 
tals dissolved- in a little distilled water, 
and the solution filtered. Add the chlo- 
ride solution to the cold solution of pyro- 
phosphate of soda, then add the hydro- 
cyanic acid and heat to near boiling point. 

This bath will produce fine gilding upon 
well cleaned articles, which must also 
have been passed through a very diluted 
solution of nitrate of mercury, without 
which the deposit of gold is red and irreg- 
ular. The articles must be constantly 
agitated in the bath, and supported by a 
hook, or placed in a stoneware ladle per- 
forated with holes. 

„Cold Electrogilding Bath.— ^Water, dis- 
tilled, 1 gal. ; potassium cyanide, pure, 
3 1-5 oz. ; gold chloride, 3 1-10 oz. 



Dissolve the cyanide in a part of the 
water, then gradually add the gold chlo- 
ride dissolved in the remainder. Boil for 
half an hour before using. (Use cold.) 

The cold bath is kept in a gutta percha. 
lined, wooden, or (if small) porcelain 
tank arranged as for brassplating. The 
anodes are thin plates of laminated gold, 
wholly suspended in the liquid (while in 
use) by means of platinum wires, from 
clean brass rods joined to the copper or 
carbon pole of the battery, the rods sup- 
porting the work being in connection with 
the zinc. When in proper working order 
the color of the deposit is yellow. If 
the deposit becomes black or dark red, 
add more cyanide (dissolved in water) to 
the bath, or use a weaker current. 

If the cyanide is in excess the plating 
will proceed very slowly or not at all ; 
or, as sometimes happens, articles al- 
ready gilded will lose their gold. In such 
a case add a little more gold chloride or 
increase the intensity of the current. 

Cold electrogilding must be done slow- 
ly, and requires a great deal of attention 
to secure good work. The articles must 
be frequently examined to detect irreg- 
ular deposits or dark spots (which must 
be scratch-brushed and returned). It is 
also frequently necessary to add to or 
remove an element from the battery 
especially when adding or taking work 
from the bath. With too much intensity 
of current the deposit is black or red ; if 
too weak those portions opposite the 
anode only get covered. In coating Ger- 
man silver it is necessary to use a weak 
hath and a small exoosurf of anode. The 
b«^Rt results with this alloy are obtained 
whpn the bath is slightly warmed. 

Hot Baths. — 1. — For copner, silver, or 
alloys rich in these. — Distilled water, 1 
sral. : phosphate of soda, cryst., 9% oz. ; 
bisulphite of soda, 1 3-5 oz. ; cyanide of 
Dotassium, pure, 1-6 oz. ; gold chloride, 
160 ffr. 

Dissolve in a portion of the water, 
lieated. the phosphate of soda. Dissolve 
in another portion of the water the bisul- 
phite of soda and cyanide of potassium. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in th*^ r^- 
ynaining water, stir the solution slowly 
into the pold ohosohate of soda solution, 
and finally add the solution of cyanide 
and bisulphite. The bath, now ready for 
use, should be colorless. 

2. — Bronze and Brass. — a. — The fol- 
lowing baths work wpII with bronze and 
brass, but are not suited for direct gilding 
on iron or steel : Distilled water, 1 gal. ; 
phosphate of soda, crvst, 6 2-5 oz. j 
bisulphite of soda, 1 3-5 oz, ; bicarbonate 
r 226 } 



(Plating with Oold) 



(Plating with Iron) 



of potash, 4-5 oz. ; caustic soda, 4-5 oz. ; 
cyanide of potassium, pure, 1-5 oz. ; gold 
chloride, 2-5 oz. 

Dissolve all together, except the gold 
chloride, in the hot water ; filter, cool and 
gradually stir in the gold chloride dis- 
solved in a little water. Heat from 120° 
to 140° F. for use. It requires an in- 
tense current. 

b. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; ferrocyanide 
of potassium, 5^/4 oz. ; carbonate of pot- 
ash, pure, 1% oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2-c> 
oz. ; gold chloride, 2-3 oz. 

Dissolve as in the last, boil for half 
an hour, replace the evaporated water, 
and the bath is ready for use. 

c. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; cyanide of 
potassium, 2 4 5 oz. ; gold chloride, 1 oz. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in the water, 
then add the cyanide, and stir until solu- 
tion is complete. 

Baths of this kind are commonly used, 
and with little regard to temperature. 
They are simple in preparation, but are, 
unfortunately, not very uniform in their 
working, ungilding one part while another 
is gilding, and producing a variety of 
colors, especially when freshly prepared. 
They improve by use, however. 

3. — Iron and Steel — Uncoated, Bath 
for. — Distilled water, 1 gal. ; phosphate 
of soda, cryst., 7 8 10 oz. ; bisulphite of 
soda, 2 oz. ; cyanide of potassium, pure, 
3-5 drams ; gold chloride. 160 grains. 

Dissolve as before. Heat to 175° or 
180° F. Pass the second metal through 
the hot potash, then through dilute 
muriatic acid (acid 1, water 15), brush, 
and connect at once. Requires a very 
intense current at first. 

4. — Management of the Hot Bath. — 
The articles should be kept in agitation 
while in the bath. They should be placea 
in connection with the battery before or 
immediately upon entering the bath. A 
foil or wire platinum is in many cases 
preferable to a soluble gold anode when 
electrogilding by aid of heat. It suffers 
no alteration in the liquid, and by its 
manipulation the color of the deposit may 
be materially altered. When it is re- 
moved so as to expose only a small sur- 
face in the bath a pale yellowish deposit 
may be obtained ; when the immersion is 
greater, a clear yellow ; with a still 
greater exposure, a red gold color. The 
strength of the hot baths may be main- 
tained by successive additions of gold 
chloride with a proper proportion of the 
other salts and water ; but it is prefera- 
ble to wear out the bath entirely and pre- 
pare a new one, as it soon becomes con- 
taminated with copper or silver if much 
of these metals have been gilt in it. In 



a nearly exhausted bath containing dis- 
solved copper the electro deposit will be 
what is called "red gold" ; if it contains 
an excess of silver a "green gold" deposit 
will result. The gold and copper or gold 
and silver are deposited together as an 
alloy, the color of which depends upon 
the relative proportion of the metals, 
battery, strength, etc. 

Dead luster gilding is produced by the 
slow deposition of a considerable quan- 
tity of gold, by giving the metallic sur- 
face a dead luster before gilding (by 
means of acids), by first preparing a 
coating of frosted silver or by depositing 
the gold upon a heavy copper deposit 
produced with a weak current in a bath 
of copper sulphate. 

In order to secure a good deposit of 
gold it is absolutely necessary that the 
work should be perfectly freed from any 
trace of oxide, grease, oil, or other im- 
purity. Articles of copper and brass may 
be cleansed by first immersing them in 
a strong boiling solution of caustic potash 
or soda, and, after rinsing, dipping mo- 
mentarily in nitric acid and immediately 
rinsing, or scouring with pumice stone 
moistened with a strong solution of cya- 
nidf^ of potasium in water. 

Other metals require a somewhat differ- 
ent treatment, which we shall have occa- 
sion to refer to in a subsequent article. 

Lead, Britannia Metal, etc. — When 
articles composed of lead, tin, Britan- 
nia metal, iron or steel are req ired 
to be gilded it is best to give thexn a 
preliminary coating of copper in ar al- 
kaline bath, or to electro-brass them, 
after which they may be easily gilded. 
The softer metals need to be burnished 
with great care, owing to their yielding 
nature under the pressure of the burnish- 
ing tools. 

Steel, Polished. — For gilding polished 
steel, a nearly neutral solution of chloride 
of g^old is mixed with sulphuric ether and 
well shaken. The ether will take uo 
the gold and the etheral solution float 
above the denser acid. If the ethereal 
solution be applied by means of a camel's- 
hair brush to brightly polished steel or 
iron, the ether evaporates and the gold, 
which adheres more or less firmly, be- 
comes reduced to the metallic state on 
the steel, and may be either polished or 
burnishpd. Steel receives a deposit of 
gold with great rapidity, even with a very 
weak battery current. 

Iron 

Electro-deposition of Iron, Solutions 
for. — 1. Ammonia Sulphate of Iron S^^i- 
tion. — This double salt, which was first 



[227] 



(Nickel) 



(Nickel) 



proposed by Boettger, for depositing this 
metal, may be readily prepared by evap- 
orating and crystallizing mixed solutions 
of equal parts of sulphate of iron and 
sulphate of ammonia. A solution of the 
double salt yields a fine white deposit of 
iron, with a moderate current, and ^ has 
been very extensively employed in "fac- 
ing" engraved copper plates. When care- 
fully worked this is one of the best solu- 
tions for the deposition of iron upon 
copper surfaces. 

2. — Boettger's Ferrocyanide Solution. — 
This solution for coating engraved copper 
plates with iron is formed by dissolving 
10 grams of ferrocyanide of potassium 
(yellow prussiate of potash) and 20 gr. 
of Itochelle salts in 200 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water. To this solution is 
added a solution consisting of 3 grams 
of persulphate of iron in 50 cubic centi- 
meters of water. A solution of caustic 
Boda is then added drop by drop, with 
constant stirring, until a perfectly clear, 
light, yellowish liquid is obtained, which 
is ready for immediate use. 

Boettger's process, as far as we are 
aware, has never been improved on. It 
is as follows: Mix 10 parts of ferrous 
ammonium chloride and dissolve the mix- 
ture in 500 parts of distilled water. 
Render the solution slightly, but dis- 
tinctly acid by the addition of sulphuric 
acid drop by drop. The surface to be 
p.ated is connected with the negative pole 
c : a battery, an iron plate of equal size 
being connected with the positive pole 
and serving as an anode. For small 
articles two or three Bunsen elements 
will answer very well. Maintain the so- 
lution at from 75° to 80° F. The de- 
posited iron is very pure, white, very 
hard and steel-like, and accumulates very 
rapidly. In this manner copper, zinc, 
type metal, etc., may be given a surface 
as hard as steel plate and at a minimum 
cost. Of course the article to be plated 
should be rendered perfectly clean before 
it is put into the bath. 

3. — Copper. — Prof. Boetgger recom- 
mend the following solution for coating 
copper plates with iron : 10 parts of fer- 
rocyanide of potassium and 20 parts of 
tartrate of soda are dissolved in 220 
parts of distilled water, adding a solution 
of 3 parts of sulphate of iron in 50 parts 
of water. Caustic soda solution is poured 
into the mixture until the Prussian blue 
formed is redissolved. 

Nickel 

Preparation of Nickel Solution. — 1. 
The substance generally employed is the 
double sulphate of nickel and ammonia, 



or "nickel salts," a crystalline salt of a 
beautiful green emerald color. This ar- 
ticle should be pure. For 100 gal. of the 
solution the proportions employed are : 
Double sulphate of nickel and ammonia, 
75 lb. ; water, 100 gal. Place the nickel 
salts in a clean wooden tub or bucket 
and pour upon them a quantity of hot 
or boiling water; stir briskly with a 
wooden stick for a few minutes, after 
which the green solution may be poured 
into the tank, and a fresh supply of hot 
water added to the undissolved crystals, 
with stirring as before. This operation 
is to be continued until all the crystals 
are dissolved, and the solution trans- 
ferred to the tank. A sufficient quantity 
of cold water is now to be added to make 
up 100 gal. in all. It is better to pass 
the hot solution through a strainer be- 
fore it enters the tank, to free it from 
impurities. 

2.— Nickelplating.— The Plating Bath. 
— The nickel salts commonly used are the 
nickel ammonium sulphate (called double 
sulphate) and the corresponding chloride. 
Other salts, such as the nickel potassium 
cyanide, the acetate and sulphate, have 
been used, but not so successfully as; 
these. 

The double sulphate bath may be pre- 
pared by dissolving % lb. of the salt in' 
each gallon of water (soft). The salt 
costs about 65 cents a pound, and is gen- 
erally considered the best for this pur- 
pose. It should be kept neutral and up 
to about 6° of hydrometer. 

The double chloride bath requires about 
4 oz. of the salt per gallon, and works 
better toward alkalinity. 

The bath should be filtered when fresh- 
ly prepared, and should be kept in a 
separate room, or at least away from the 
apartment in which the buffing or polish- 
ing is performed, to avoid contamination 
by dust as much as possible. Exposed 
to the air, the bath (the water) evapor- 
ates, and the water thus lost must be 
replaced from time to time. To retard 
this and keep out dust as much as possi- 
ble, it is well to cover the bath when not 
in use. Its surface should be skimmed 
occasionally and it should be frequently 
mixed together to preserve a uniform 
degree of strength. 

The tank or vessel in which the bath 
is contained is usually constructed of 
smooth 24n. white pine stuff, grooved 
and well bolted together and coated on 
the inside with good asphaltum applied 
in the melted state. 

Instead of this form, a clean tub or a 
half barrel or hogshead, with an extra 
hoop, may be used, though from the shape 



[228] 



(Nickel) 



(Nickel) 



of such a vessel there is necessarily much 
waste space to be filled with useless 
liquid. 

For small baths a neat form of vessel 
consisting in a square porcelain lined 
(enameled) iron tank of suitable dimen- 
sions is sold by some of the dealers in 
electroplating materials. 

3. — Anodes of Feeding Plates. — Good 
pure oast nickel anodes are now obtained 
at a moderate cost, and are preferable 
to grain metal anodes. They usually 
come in sizes ranging from 1% x 4 in., 
3-16 in. thick, to 8 x 12 in., % in. thick. 

They may be suspended around the 
sides of the tank or across and facing the 
work (care being taken to avoid bring- 
ng them into such close proximity to the 
work that contact is likely to occur under 
any circumstance). They may be sus- 
pended by clean copper trusses or hooks 
— which should not be permitted to touch 
the liquid — from stout copper roas, to 
which connection with the battery is 
made. 

4. — The Battery. — In nearly all large 
electroplating establishments some form 
of dynamo-electric machine is now used 
instead of the battery. They are cleanly, 
require little attention and space, and 
afford a current more easily adapted to 
the work and at a much smaller cost. 

But as their first cost is considerable, 
and they require power to operate them, 
the old battery is still in requisition in 
smaller establishments. The carbon or 
chromic acid battery is more commonly 
used, as it admits of more rapid work 
with a smaller number of cells ; but as it 
supplies a very intense current, it often 
becomes necessary to introduce resistance 
coils to reduce it where small work is 
on hand. Some of the best work we have 
ever seen has been produced with the 
current derived from two or three Smee 
or sulphate of copper cells (in series). 
The amount of battery power for a given 
amount of work should be in zinc surface 
(exposed) about equal (when in proper 
working order) to the surface of the 
work exposed in the plating bath, with 
care to preserve the tension. If one cell 
has a zinc surface (exposed) of, say, one 
hundred square inches, and the work, say, 
five hundred, the one cell will require to 
be multiplied by five for quantity and 
(if the original tension was, say, three) 
by three to preserve the tension. 

Of course this is equivalent to three 
large single cells, '"•^h exposing five hun- 
dred square inches of zinc (equal to a 
plate about sixteen inches square, expos- 
ing both sides). Large batteries of the 



dipping form, admitting of the immersion 
of the proper quantity of zinc, are often 
convenient. 

If the current is too strong the de- 
posited metal will present a dull (com- 
monly termed burnt) appearance; if too 
weak it is apt to be imperfect, granular, 
or semi-crystalline. 

For practical purposes the electricity 
may be said to proceed from the copper 
or carbon pole of the battery, and care 
should be taken that this pole is invaria- 
bly connected (by stout copper wires or 
rods) with the anodes or feeding plates 
in the plating bath, for if misconnected 
damage is done both to the work and the 
bath by the corrosion or partial solution 
of the former in the latter. 

5. — Preparing the Work. — Before work 
can be plated its surface must be freed 
perfectly from all traces of oil or grease, 
oxides, lacquer, and other impurities. Oil, 
grease, etc, are removed by contact with 
a strong, hot acqueous solution of caustic 
potash, and, after rinsing off the adhering 
alkali, from oxide by an acid bath ; or, 
if of brass, copper, or German silver, by 
scouring with fine pumice stone and strong 
acqueous solution of cyanide of potas- 
sium. Iron is pickled in diluted sulphuric 
or muriatic acid (acid 1, water 5 to 15), 
and scoured with fine white silicious sand 
or pumice stone. Brass or copper is 
sometimes brightened before entering to 
the plating bath by dipping it momen- 
tarily in nitric acid diluted with about 
20 parts of water, and quickly rinsing 
it in running water. It should be placed 
in circuit immediately after this. 

The hand must not come into contact 
with any part of the work after removal 
from the alkali, as the slightest touch 
may spoil all. 

On removal of the plated work from 
the plating bath it should be quickly 
rinsed (without handling) in cold water, 
then transferred to hot water, which will 
cause it when taken out to dry quickly 
and perfectly. If the finished work is 
to present a smooth polishing surface it 
must present such a surface before enter- 
ing the plating bath. Nickel is hard and 
will not readily submit to a burnishing 
tool. 

When the work is placed in circuit in 
the plating bath (and it should not be 
permitted to remain many moments in 
the bath without being placed in circuit) 
it should be moved about to free it from 
bubbles. 

The process of nickelplating is a sim- 
ple one, and by a little practice and 
proper attention to the requirements the 



[229] 



(Nickel) 



(Silverplating) 



bath may be worked month after month, 
/and the metal deposited smoothly and 
with certainty. 

Formulae for Nickelplating Solutions. 
1. — Double sulphate of nickel and am- 
monium, 5 to 8 parts; water, 100 ports. 

Dissolve the nickel double salt in above 
quantity of water with the aid of heat. 
Cautiously add ammonia, or the sulphate 
of ammonium, until the solution is neu- 
tral to test paper. This solution should 
be maintained as nearly neutral as possi- 
ble in use. This is commonly known in 
the United States as the Adams solution. 
It is in very general use by nickelplat^rs 
throughout the United States, and yi'^lds, 
■where properly managed, excellent results. 

2. — Double sulphate of nickel and am- 
monium, 10 parts; boric acid T refined 
2% to 5 parts ; water, 150 to 200 parts. 

(Weston's solution.) The superiority 
of this solution is generally acknowledged. 
The deposited metal, as previously re- 
marked, is almost silver-white, dense, 
homogenous and tenacious, and the solu- 
tion maintains its excellent working 
quality very uniformly in long-continued 
service. 

The nickel salt and boric acid may be 
dissolved separately in boiling water, the 
solutions mixed, and the volume brought 
up to that of the formula, or the two 
components may be dissolved together. 

3. — Acetate of nickel, 2% parts; ace- 
tate of calcium, 2% parts ; water, 100 
parts. 

To each gallon of this solution add 1 fl. 
oz. of acetic acid, 1.047 sp. gr. 

To prepare this bath dissolve about 
the same quantity of the dry carbonate 
of nickel as that called for in the formula 
(or three-quarters of that quantity of the 
bydrated oxide) in acetic acid, adding the 
acid cautiously, and heating until effer- 
vescence has ceased and solution is com- 
plete. The acetate of calcium may be 
made by dissolving the same weight of 
carbonate of calcium (marble dust) as 
that called for in the formula (or one- 
half that quantity of caustic lime), and 
treating it in the same manner. Add 
the two solutions together, dilute the 
volume to be required amount by tne 
addition of water, and then to each gal- 
lon of the solution add a fluid ounce of 
free acetic acid, as prescribed. (Potts' 
solution.) 

4. — Sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
10 parts ; sulphate of ammonium, 4 parts ; 
citric acid, 1 part ; water, 200 parts. 

The solution is made with the aid of 
heat, and, when cool, small fragments of 
carbonate of ammonium should be added 
until the bath is neutral to test paper. 



5. — Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts ; citrate 
of nickel, 3 parts ; phosphate of nickel, 

3 parts; benzoic acid, ly^ parts; water, 
200 parts. 

6. — Phosphate of nickel, 10 parts; cit- 
rate of nickel, 6 parts; pyrophosphate 
of sodium, 10% parts ; bisulphite of 
sodium, 1^ parts ; citric acid, 3 parts ; 
aqua ammonia, 15 parts ; water, 400 
parts. 

7. — Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts ; aqua 
ammonia, 3 parts ; water, 100 parts. 

When the nickel is dissolved add aqua 
ammonia, 20 parts. 

This bath is similar to that recom- 
mended by Prof. Boettger ; it is said to 
be well suited for the purposes of ama- 
teurs, inasmuch as it gives good results 
with a platinum anode. It is worked at 
a temperature of 100° F., with a moder- 
ate current. It requires renewal from 
time to time, as it becomes impoverished 
in nickel, by addition of fresh nickel salt ; 
it must also be kept alkaline by the 
occasional addition of ammonia. 

8. — Renickeling Old Work. — When goods 
which have been nickelplated require to 
be renickeled, it is always better to re- 
move the old coating by means of a strip- 
ping solution, as nickel will not adhere to 
a coating of the same metal. A stripping 
bath may be composed as follows : 
Sulphuric acid, 16 lb. ; nitric acid, 

4 lb. ; water, 2 qt. Add the sulphuric acid 
to the w^ater (not the reverse, which is 
dang yous) gradually, and when the mix- 
ture has cooled down, add the nitric acid, 
and stir the mixture with a glass rod. 
When cold it is ready for use. Attacn 
the articles to be stripped to a piece of 
stout brass or copper wire pnd place in 
the stripping liquid ; they should be ex- 
amined after a few moments. The opera- 
tion of stripping should be conducted in 
the open air or in a fireplace with good 
draught. The articles should not be 
allowed to remain in the liquid one mo- 
ment after the nickel has been dissolved 
from the surface, but be immediately re- 
moved and plunged into cold water. 

9. — Tin, Britannia Metal, etc. — Sul- 
phate of nickel and ammonium, 10 parts ; 
sulphate of ammonium, 2 parts ; water, 
300 parts. The salts are to be dissolved 
in boiling water, and when cold the solu- 
tion is r^ady for use. For nickeling cast 
and wrought iron and steel the following 
bath is recommended : Sulphate of nickel 
and ammonium, 10 parts ; sulphate of am- 
monium, 1% parts; water, 250 parts. 

Silverplating 

Simple Instructions for, — 1, — For silver- 
plating the bath consists of potassium 



[ 230 ]■ 



(Silverplating) 



(Silverplating) 



silver cyanide, prepared by precipitating 
solution of silver nitrate with potassium 
cyanide and redissolving the washed pre- 
cipitate in excess of potassium cyanide 
solution — potassium cyanide, 12 oz. ; 
water, 1 gal. ; silver cyanide, about 1 troy 
oz. Filter and use in a porcelain or 
glazed vessel. For the whitening bath 
dissolve 1 lb. potassium cyanide in 1 gal. 
of water, add ^4 oz. troy of silver cya- 
nide and filter the solution. The baths 
are provided with silver feeding plates 
for anodes proportioned in size to the 
surface of the work to be plated. These 
are connected with the positive pole of 
battery. The cleaned articles are con- 
nected by a copper wire with the zinc 
pole of the battery, dipped for a minute 
or two in the whitening bath, and when 
uniformly coated with a white film of 
silver, transferred to the plating bath, 
under similar conditions. 3 or 4 Smee 
cells with plates 10 x 4 in. will gener- 
ally suffice for the plating bath, and 4 
or 5 similar cells for the whitening bath ; 
twenty to thirty minutes in the plating 
bath is usually sufficient to plate the 
work properly. Articles of copper, brasts 
or German silver to be plated should 
first be cleaned by boiling them for a few 
minutes in strong potash water to free 
them from traces of oil or grease, and, 
after rinsing, in dilute nitric acid to re- 
move any oxide and again thoroughly 
rinsed. It must not be touched by the 
hand after cleaning. Just before putting 
the work into the bath, dip it momen- 
tarily in strong nitric or a mixture of 
equal parts nitric and sulphuric acids 
and rinse quickly. After this treatment 
it is sometimes dipped for a moment in 
dilute aqueous mercurous nitrate solu- 
tion and rinsed again. This has the 
effect of coating the clean metal with a 
film of mercury, which secures a perfect 
adhesion of the deposited silver. 

2.— The Bath.— Water (soft), 1 gal.; 
cyanide of potassium (pure), 8 oz. ; ni- 
trate of silver, 5% oz. • 

Dissolve the nitrate of silver in a 
sufficient quantity of pure water (soft), 
and add to it gradually, with constant 
stirring, hydrocyanic (prussic) acid until 
all the silver has been precipitated as 
cyanide, which may be known by the 
formation of no cloud in a portion of 
the clear liquid when a drop of the acid 
is added to it. Avoid adding an excess 
of the acid. Throw the precipitate upon 
a fine cotton cloth filter, and as the liquid 
runs through wash the precipitate on 
the cloth several times with pure water. 
Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in the 
water, and stir in the cyanide of silver 



carefully removed from the cloth. If it 
does not dissolve in the liquid entirely, 
add more cyanide of potassium until it 
does, stirring continually. Let the im- 
purities settle, and the bath is ready for 
use. Many electroplaters use a prelim- 
inary for silver "whitening" bath, which 
is the same composition, but contains less 
silver, more cyanide, and is worked with 
a somewhat stronger current. 

The cleaned article in some cases is 
first dipped for a few moments in a solu- 
tion of nitrate of mercury, 1 oz. in 1 
gal. of water, and then in the whitening 
bath for a few minutes, and after brush- 
ing is transferred to the silver bath 
proper. 

The vessels containing the cold bath 
are sufficiently high to allow about 4 in. 
of liquid above the immersed objects, 
whose distance from the bottom and sidesj 
should be nearly the same to give a 
regular deposit of metal at both ends of 
the object. 

The upper ledge of the trough carries 
two brass rods all around, which do not 
touch one another, one above the other, 
so that other metallic rods placed trans- 
versely will rest upon tue higher or lower 
series of rods only. The upper rods are 
connected with the zinc, the lower with 
the carbon or copper end of the battery, 
or with the corresponding poles of the 
dynamo-electric machine. The trans- 
verse rods resting upon the lower set 
support the silver anodes; thosp resting 
on the upper set, the work. The work 
suspended from an upper transverse is 
placed so as to face two anodes sus- 
pended from two lower transverse rods. 

As the lower layers of the bath are apt 
to become denser (richer) than the up- 
per, it is often necessary to reverse the 
articles during the operation to obtain 
a perfectly uniform thickness of deposit. 
For the same purpose small articles 
should be kept in motion as much as 
possible. 

The deposit is finer and denser if ob- 
tained with a weak battery and long ex- 
posure than if a strong current is em- 
ployed. A sufficient quantity of silver 
may be deposited in three or four hours, 
but it will be of much finer quality and 
more easily burnished if the work is 
left in the bath for twelve or fifteen 
hours with a few cells of batery. 

When the articles especially coppered 
iron, etc., have acquired a coherent film 
of silver, they are sometimes removed 
from the bath, and thoroughly scratch- 
brushed, cleansed in alcohol, or preferably 
in a hot silvering bath, thence again 



[231] 



(Silvei plating) 



(Tin and Zinc) 



passed through the mercurial solution 
and finished in the cold plating bath. 

The first scratch-brushing ,which is not 
always necessary, obviates the tendency 
of certain alloys to assume a crystalline 
appearance and corrects the imperfections 
of the cleansing in process. ^ 

Should the anodes become black during 
the passage of the current, the solution 
contains too little cyanide. In this the 
deposit is adherent, but too slow; and 
the bath loses more silver than it can 
gain from the anodes. 

If the anodes remain white during the 
passage of the current, the bath contains 
an excess of cyanide, and the deposit does 
not properly adhere; correct by adding 
cyanide of silver until it dissolves with 
difficulty. 

When in good working order, the 
anodes present a gray appearance while 
the current is passing, becoming white 
when circuit is broken. 

The specific gravity of the bath may 
vary from 5° to 15° Baum^'s hydro- 
meter and still furnish good results. 

Electro-silvering baths do not generally 
work so well when freshly prepared. If 
properly used and cared for, they im- 
prove by age. At first the deposit is 
often granulated bluish or yellowish. 

It is customary to mix portions of an 
old bath with a freshly prepared one. 
Some platers introduce small quantities 
of ammonia instead to age the liquid. 

Bisulphide of carbon in small quanti- 
ties imparts a bright luster to plated ar- 
ticles. 1 oz. of the bisulphide is put into 
a pint bottle filled with a strong solution 
of the cyanide of potassium and silver, 
briskly shaken, and a few drops of this 
liquid poured into the bath occasionally 
unty the work appears sufficiently bright. 
An excess of bisulphide must, however, 
be avoided, as it will spoil the bath. 

What has«been said about the arrange- 
ment of battery in articles of nickel and 
brass plating will also apply here. 

3. — Deposits. — For electro-silverplating 
the double salt of silver and potassium 
cyanide is almost universally employed. 
The baths are used either hot or cold. 
The latter method is generally adopted 
for articles which require great solidity. 
The hot process is used for small articles, 
and is preferable for steel, iron, zinc, lead 
and tin, which have been previously elec- 
tro-coppered. The hot baths are gener- 
ally kept in enameled cast-iron kettles, 
and the articles are either suspended or 
moved constantly about in them. A 
somewhat energetic current is needed, es- 
pecially when the articles are moved 
about in order to operate rapidly. A 



gray or black deposit indicates too strong 
a current, and when the surface becomes 
covered with bubbles of gas the same 
thing is indicated. The anodes are plates 
of sHver or heavy silver foil. The wooden 
tanks for the cold baths are similar to 
those used in plating with copper and 
nickel, but should be very thoroughly 
coated on the inside with gutta percha. 

Tin 

1. — The following is one of the best 
solutions of plating with tin by the bat- 
tery process : Potassium pyrophosphate, 
12 oz. ; protochloride of tin, 4^ oz. ; 
water, 20 oz. 

The anode or feeding plate used in this 
bath consists of pure Banca tin. This 
plate is joined to the positive (copper or 
carbon) pole of the battery, while the 
work is suspended from a wire connected 
with the negative (zinc) pole. A mod- 
erately strong battery is required, and 
the work is finished by scratch-brushing. 
2. — In Weigler's process a bath is pre- 
pared by passing washed chlorine gas into 
a concentrated aqueous solution of stan- 
nous chloride to saturation, and expelling 
excess of gas by warming the solution, 
which is then diluted with about ten 
volumes of water and filtered, if neces- 
sary. The articles to be plated are 
pickled in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
polished with fine sand and scratch-brush, 
rinsed in water, loosely armed with zinc 
wire or tape, and immersed in the bath 
for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary 
temperatures. The coating is finished 
with the scratch-brush and whiting. 

By this process iron — cast or wrought 
— steel, copper, brass, and lead can be 
tinned without a separate battery. The 
only disadvantage of the process is that 
the bath soon becomes clogged up with 
zinc chloride, and the tin salt must be 
frequently renewed. 

Zinc 

Electro-deposition of. — For the electro- 
deposition of zinc solutions of the sul- 
phate, ammonia sulphate, chloride and 
ammonia chloride may be employed, as 
also alkaline solutions, prepared by dis- 
solving zinc oxide or carbonate in a solu- 
tion of cyanide of potassium or caustic 
potassium ; the deposit from either of 
these alkaline solutions is generally of 
Very good quality, and if too strong a 
current be not employed the deposited 
metal is usually very tough. 
COATING OF METALS BY OTHER 
PROCESSES 

CX)PPER DEPOSIT BY DIPPING 

This is seldom practiced except upon 
iron, as deposits thus obtained are gen- 



[ 232 ] 



(Non-Electric Gilding) 



(Non-Electric Gilding) 



erally wanting in lasting qualities, since, 
from the thinness of the coating, the 
iron is but imperfectly protected from at- 
mospheric influences. If the iron is dipped 
in a solution of : Sulphate of copper, 31/2 
oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3i^ oz. ; water, 1 to 

2 gal. ; it becomes covered with a coat- 
ing of pure copper, having a certain ad- 
hesion ; but should it remain there a few 
minutes, the deposit becomes thick and 
muddy, and does not stand any rubbing. 
Small articles, such as pins, hooks and 
nails, are thus coppered by tumbling them 
for a few moments in sand, bran, or saw- 
dust impregnated with the above solution, 
diluted with three or four volumes of 
water. 

GOLD 

The metal employed for gilding is 
usually brass or a mixture of brass ana 
copper. The following alloys have been 
recommended : 

a, — Copper, 6 parts ; brass, 1 part. 

b. — Copper, 4 parts; Bristol brass, 1 
part. 

c. — Copper, 13 parts ; old Bristol brass, 

3 parts; tin, 14 parts. 

1.— .Mixtures employed in gilding by fire 
or by the wet processes. 

Red Ormolu. — Potash alum, nitrate of 
potash, 30 parts of each ; sulphate of zinc, 
8 parts ; common salt, 3 parts ; red ocher, 
28 parts; sulphate of iron, 1 part. Add 
to it a small proportion of annatto, mad- 
der, cochineal, or other coloring matter, 
ground in water or in weak vinegar. 

Yellow Ormolu. — Red ocher, 17 parts; 
potash alum, 50 parts; sulphate of zinc, 
10 parts; common salt, 3 parts; nitrate 
of potash, 20 parts. 

2. — The following gilding solution will 
deposit a smooth and brilliant layer of 
gold on silver, brass, cov per, etc. : 

Gold chloride, 20 parts; potassium cy- 
anide, 60 parts; potassium bitartrate, 
5 parts ; prepared chalk, 100 parts ; water, 
distilled, 100 parts. 

Dissolve the gold chloride in a portion 
of the water and the potassium salts in 
the remainder. Mix the solutions and stir 
in the prepared chalk. The articles to 
be gilded should be rendered free from 
grease, oxidation, etc., and the mixture 
applied with a woolen rag and rubbed 
well on. 

Brass and Copper 

1. — The following formula has been 
adopted for water gilding, as it is termed. 
Fine gold, 6i/4 dwts. Convert the gold 
into chloride and dissolve in 1 qt. of dis- 
tilled water, then add 1 lb. bicarbonate 
of potassium and boil the mixture for 



two hours. Immerse the articles to be 
gilded in the warm solution for a few 
seconds, up to one minute, according to 
the activity of the bath. 

2. — Another method of gilding brass 
and copper articles, by simple immersion, 
is to first dip them in a solution of proto- 
nitrate of mercury (made by dissolving 
quicksilver in nitric acid and diluting with 
water) and then dipping them into the 
gilding liquid. It is said that copper maj' 
be gilded so perfectly by this method as 
to resist for some time the corrosive action 
of strong acids. During the action which 
takes place, the film of mercury, which 
is electro-positive to the gold, dissolves in 
the auriferous solution, and a film of gold 
is deposited in its place. 

Bronze, etc. 

Small articles may be gilded by immers- 
ing them in the following solution, which 
must be used at nearly boiling heat. 
Caustic potash, 180 parts ; carbonate of 
potash, 20 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 9 
parts ; water, 1,000 parts. Rather more 
than 1% parts chloride of gold is to be 
dissolved in the water, when the other 
substances are to be added and the whole 
boiled together. The solution must be 
strengthened from time to time by the 
addition of chloride of gold, and also after 
being worked four or five times, by the 
addition of the other salts in the propor- 
tions given. This bath is recommended 
chiefly for gilding economically small 
articles of cheap jewelry, and for giving 
a preliminary coating of gold to large 
articles, which are to receive a stronger 
coating. 

Mercury Gilding 

Preparation of the Amalgam. — To pre- 
pare the amalgam of gold for the pur- 
pose of mercury gilding, weigh a quan- 
tity of fine or standard gold and put 
in a crucible and heat to dull redness. 
The requisite proportion of mercury, 8 
parts to 1 part of gold, is now added, and 
the mixture is stirred with a slightly 
crooked iron rod, the heat being kept up 
until the gold is entirely dissolved by the 
mercury. Pour the amalgam into a small 
dish about 3 parts filled with water and 
work about with the fingers under the 
water to squeeze out as much of the ex- 
cess of mercury as possible. To facilitate 
this, the dish is slightly inclined to allow 
the superfluous mercury to flow from the 
mass, which soon acquires a pasty condi- 
tion capable of receiving the impression 
of the fingers. Afterward squeeze the 
amalgam in a chamois leather bag, by 
which a further quantity of mercury is 



[233] 



(Mercury Gilding") 



(Gold Nickeling) 



liberated; the amalgam which remains 
after this final treatment consists of about 
33 parts of mercury and 57 parts of gold 
in 100 parts. The mercury which is 
pressed through the bag retains a good 
deal of gold, and is employed in prepar- 
ing fresh batches of amalgam. It is im- 
portant that the mercury employed should 
be pure. 

The Mercurial Solution. — To apply the 
amalgam a solution of nitrate of mercury 
is employed, which is prepared by dissolv- 
ing in a glass flask 100 parts of mercury 
in 110 parts of nitric acid, of sp. gr., 1.33, 
gentle heat being employed to assist the 
chemical action. The red fumes which 
are given off must be allowed to escape 
into the chimney, since they are highly 
deleterious when inhaled. When the mer- 
cury is all dissolved the solution is to be 
diluted with about 25 times its weight of 
distilled water and bottled for use. 

Applying the Amalgam. — The pasty 
amalgam is spread with the blade of a 
knife upon a hard, fiat stone ; the article, 
after being well cleaned and scratch- 
brushed, is treated in the following way : 
Take a small scratch brush of nitrate ot 
mercury, then draw over the amalgam ; 
pass the brush carefully over the surface 
to be gilded, repeatedly dipping the brush 
in the mercurial solution, and drawing it 
over the amalgam, until the entire sur- 
face is uniformly and sufficiently coated. 
Then rinse the article well and dry. The 
next operation is the evaporation of the 
mercury. For this purpose a charcoal 
fire, resting upon a cast iron plate, has 
been generally adopted, a simple hood of 
sheet iron being the only means of pro- 
tection from the injurious effects of the 
mercurial vapors. When the amalga- 
mated article is rinsed and dried, it is 
exposed to the glowing charcoal, turned 
about and heated by degrees to the proper 
point ; then it is withdrawn frorc the fire 
by means of long pincers or tongs. The 
article is then taken in the left hand, 
which should be protected with a leather 
glove, turned over the fire in every direc- 
tion, and while the mercury is volatiliz- 
ing the article should be struck with a 
long-haired brush to equalize the amalgam 
coating and force it upon such parts as 
may appear to require it. When the 
mercury has become entirely volatilized 
the gilding has a dull, greenish yellow 
color. If any bare places are apparent 
they are touched up with amalgam and 
the article again submitted to the fire, 
care being taken to expel the mercury 
gradually. The article is then well 
scratch-brushed ; when it is of a pale. 



greenish color, heat it again to expel anv 
remaining mercury, when it acquires the 
orange yellow of fine gold. If required 
to be bright it is burnished in the ordi- 
nary way. 

Steel 

Gold leaf, chlorhydric acid, nitric acid, 
sulphuric ether. 

Mix the two acids in the proportion of 
one part of nitric acid and three parts 
of chlorhydric acid ; dissolve the gold leaf 
in it and evaporate till dry. The residue 
is to be dissolved in the smallest quantity 
of water possible. Then a volume of ether 
equal to three times the quantity of water 
is to be added. The liquor is to be shaken 
in a closely stoppered bottle until the layer 
of ether is colored yellow, and the water 
has lost all its color. 

To employ this solution, immerse in it 
the steel object, previously polished. The 
surface will be immediately gilded. An 
imitation of damaskeen work may be ob- 
tained. It is sufficient to apply a varnish 
of wax to the parts before they are cover- 
ed by the gilding. 

NIGKELING 

Nickeling may be performed on all 
metals, cold, by means of nickelene by 
the Mitressey process, recently introduced 
in France, and any desired thickness de- 
posited. It is said to be more solid than 
nickel. 

First Bath. — Clean the objects and take 
5 kgm. of American potash per 25 liters 
of water. If the pieces are quite rusted, 
take 2 liters of chlorhydric acid per 1 
liter of water. The bath is employed 
cold. 

Second Bath. — Put 250 grammes of sul- 
phate of copper in 25 liters of water. 
After dissolution add a few drops of sul- 
phuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the 
liquid with a wooden stick until it be- 
comes as clear as spring water. 

Take out the pieces thus cleaned and 
place them in what is called the copper 
bath, attaching to them leaves of zinc; 
they will assume a red tint. Then pass 
them into the nickeling bath, which is 
thus composed : 

Cream of tartar, 20 grams; sal am- 
moniac, in powder, 10 grams; kitchen 
salt, 5 grams; oxychlorhydrate of tin, 20 
grams; sulphate of nickel, single, 30 
grams; sulphate of nickel, double, 50 
grams. 

Remove the pieces from the bath in a 
few minutes and rub them with fine sand 
on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus be 



[234] 



(Non-Electric Platinum) 



(Non-Electric Silvering) 



obtained. To improve the appearance, 
apply a brass wire brush. 

Brilliancy may be also imparted by 
means of a piece of buff glued on a 
wooden wheel and smeared with English 
red stuff. This will give a glazed appear- 
ance. 

PLATINUM 

In this new process, the metallic object 
is covered with a mixture of borate of 
lead, oxide of copper, and spirits of tur- 
pentine, and submitted to a temperature 
of from 250° to 330°. This deposit, upon 
melting, spreads in a uniform layer over 
the object. Then a second coat is laid 
on, consisting of borate of lead, oxide of 
copper, and oil of lavender. Next, by 
means of a brush, the object is covered 
with a solution of chloride of platinum, 
which is finally evaporated at a tempera- 
ture of not more than 200°. 

The platinum adheres firmly to the sur- 
face, and exhibits a brilliant aspect. If 
the deposit be made upon the first coat, 
the platinum will have a dead appearance. 
Platinizing in this way costs, it is said, 
about one-tenth the price of nickel plat- 
ing. 

Copper 

The appearance of platinum may be 
given to copper by immersion in a bath 
composed of 1% pt. hydrochloric acid, 
7% oz. arsenic acid, and l^^ oz. acetate 
of copper. The article must be cleaned 
before immersion, and left in the bath till 
it has the color of platinum. 

Silver 

Place some platinum in a small quan- 
tity of aqua regia or nitro-muriatic acid, 
and keep it in a warm place a few days ; 
it will dissolve. As soon as it has dis- 
solved, evaporate the liquid at a gentlo 
heat until it is as thick as honey, so as 
to get rid of the excess of the nitric and 
muriatic acids. Add a little water, and 
it is ready for use. A dozen drops of this 
solution goes a long way in platinizing 
silver. The operation is performed in a 
small glass or beaker, covered witn a 
watchglass to keep in the fumes, and 
placed in a little sand in a saucer, to 
equalize the heat. 

SILVER 

Silver is used to a great extent in plat- 
ing other metals, to which it imparts n^t 
only its fine color, but also great resist- 
ance to outward influences. 

There are a number of methods of 
silverplating, which may be distin- 



guished : 1. Oold plating by rubbing. 
2. Wet plating by means of boiling. 3. 
Mechanical plating by pressing or rolling. 
4. Fire-silvering, 5. Contact plating. 
6. Electroplating. The latter method is 
the one which at present is almost ex- 
clusively employed. 

Cast Iron, To Silver 

1. — To silver cast iron, 15 gr. nitrate 
of silver are dissolved in 250 gr. water, 
and 30 gr. cyanide of potassium are 
added ; when the solution is complete, the 
liquid is poured into 700 gr. water where- 
in 15 gr. common salt have been previous- 
ly dissolved. The cast iron intended to 
be silvered by this solution should, after 
having been well cleaned, be placed for 
a few minutes in a bath of nitric acid of 
1.2 sp. gr. just before being placed in 
the silvering fluid. 

2. — A new process for silvering articles 
of iron is thus described. The article is 
first plunged in a pickle of hot dilute hy- 
drochloric acid, whence it is removed to 
a solution of mercury nitrate, and con- 
nected with the zinc pole of a Bunsen ele- 
ment, gas carbon or platinum serving as 
the other pole. It is rapidly covered with 
a layer of quicksilver, when it is removed, 
washed, and transferred to a silver bath 
and silvered. By heating to 300° C. 
(572° Fah.) the mercury is driven off, 
and the silver firmly fixed on the iron. To 
save silver, the wire can be first covered 
with a layer of tin. One part of cream of 
tartar is dissolved in 8 parts of boiling 
water, and 1 or more tin anodes are 
joined with the carbon pole of a Bunsen 
element. The zinc pole communicates 
with a well cleaned piece of copper, and 
the battery is made to act till enough 
tin has deposited on the cooper, when 
this is taken out and the ironware put 
in its place. The wire thus covered with 
tin chemically pure, and silvered, is said 
to be much cheaper than any other sil- 
vered metals. 

Cold Plating (See Rubbing) 

Dead Luster 

Mix 7 oz. white lead and 1 oz. white 
litharge, with linseed-oil varnish. Mix 
this mass with an oil varnish. 

Desilvering 

The following is a liquid which will 
dissolve silver without attacking coppt*, 
brass, or German silver, so as to remove 
the silver from silvered objects, plated 
ware, etc. It is a mixture of 1 part of 
nitric acid with 6 parts sulphuric, heated 



[235] 



(Non-Electric Silvering) 



(Non-Electric Silvering) 



in a water bath of 160° F., at which 
temperature it operates best. 

Rubbing 

Cold Plating. — If certain silver com- 
pounds are brought into contact with 
other metals, such as zinc, iron, or copper, 
they will be decomposed, with separation 
of metallic silver; and this is the basis 
of a method of plating which consists 
merely in rubbing on a composition with 
a cork. Such a coating is not very dur- 
able, and only suitable for objects which 
are not to be submitted to any hard wear, 
such as the scales of thermometers and 
barometers. 

1. — One of the older formulas for cold 
plating gives the following mixture : Sil- 
ver chloride, 3 parts ; salt, 3 parts ; washed 
chalk, 2 parts ; potash, 6 parts. 

This compound is applied to the metal 
with a piece of moistened leather or with 
a cork. The object must previously be 
made bright, and is to be finally polished, 
after rinsing. 

The silver chloride is obtained by dis- 
solving silver in nitric acid, and adding to 
the solution hydrochloric acid, as long as 
there is any heavy white precipitate, re- 
sembling flakes of freshly precipitated 
cheese. This precipitate is filtered off, 
washed with water until the water, tried 
with ammonia, is no longer colored blue, 
and then dried in a dark place and also 
kept in the dark. Silver chloride is de- 
composed by light, becoming purple and 
finally black. 

2. — A fine even plating is produced by 
application of a paste consisting of 1 part 
of silver nitrate and 3 of potassium cya- 
nide. This is to be rubbed on with a 
woolen rag, the object afterward washed, 
and rubbed bright with leather. It is best 
to wear gloves when doing this, as potas- 
sium cyanide is so very poisonous that if 
the smallest^ scratch on the hand is 
touched by it, dangerous or even fatal 
ulcers may be caused. 

3. — Small objects, such as buttons, are 
easily silvered by rubbing with a composi- 
tion consisting of 3 parts of silver chlo- 
ride, 8 parts of tartar, and 1 of salt, 
made into a paste. 

4. — In another method, 1 part of pow- 
dered silver, chemically prepared by pre- 
cipitation of a silver solution with cop- 
per, is rubbed together, dry. with 2 parts 
of tartar and 2 of salt, the mixture is 
moistened with enough water to make a 
thin paste, and is rubbed on with the 
finger or with a compact, stiff brush. 
Bronze, copper, or brass objects will take, 
in this way, a very beautiful dull white 
silver coating. 



5. — ^Amalgam of Silver and Tin. — Put 

into a mortar 2 parts of mercury, 1 of 
chemically precipitated silver powder, 1 
of tinfoil, and rub until the metals are 
amalgamated, then mix with 6 parts of 
bone ash, and apply the compound with 
a moist rag to brass or copper ; it can 
also be used for bronze, and gives a 
silvery coating, which is much finer and 
more durable than many kinds of wet 
plating. 

6. — Brass. — The first essential is that 
the metal be chemically clean, which is 
best done by the use of dilute nitric acid, 
followed by a wash with clean water, and 
then with dilute aqua ammonia, drying in 
sawdust. If the metal be then rubbed 
with chloride of silver dissolved in water 
and then washed and again dried in saw- 
dust, the result will be fine. It should, 
however, be immediately lacquered in 
order to preserve the surface. 

7. — Imitation of Ck)ld Silver Plating. — 
Rub together equal quantities of mercury, 
tin, and bismuth, until amalgamated, and 
add one and a half times as much washed 
chalk. This compound, applied to brass, 
gives a silvery coating, lustrous, but not 
very durable. 

Wet Plating 

Cold Method. — There are upon the 
market various fluids, called "silvering 
fluid," "eau argentine," etc., which im- 
part to clean and bright metal ^ objects, 
simply immersed in them, a brilliant but 
very thin silver coating. The following 
are given for these fluids : 

1. — Silver carbonate, 1 part; sodium 
hyposulphite, 10 parts ; water, 10 parts. 
The silver carbonate is obtained by pour- 
ing a soda solution into a solution of 
silver nitrate, the resulting precipitate 
to be washed and dried. Or it need not 
be dried, but simply put into a glass 
vessel with the crystals of sodium hypo- 
sulphite, where water is poured over it 
and the solution hastened by frequent 
stirring. The fluid is then poured off 
from the undissolved residue of the silver 
carbonate. The objects immersed in it 
are to be touched with a zinc rod. 

2. — Dissolve 1 oz. crystals of silver ni- 
trate in 12 oz. soft water, then dissolve in 
the water 2 oz. potassium cyanide. Shake 
the whole together and let it stand until 
it becomes clear. Have ready some half 
ounce vials and fill them half full of Paris 
white or fine whiting and then fill up the 
bottles with the liquid and it is ready for 
use. The silver coating is not as tena- 
cious to the article as when electrolytical- 
ly deposited. This is very poisonous, and 



[236] 



(Tinning) 



(Tinning) 



should be handled with great caution — if 
at aU. 

3. — ^Boettger's Plating Fluid for Brass, 
Copper, Iron, and Steel. — Silver hyposul- 
phite, 2 parts; ammonium chloride, 1 
part; water, 20 parts. 

The silver hyposulphite is obtained by 
dissolving silver nitrate in water, adding 
ammonia until the resulting precipitate 
again dissolves, then adding a concen- 
trated solution of sodium hyposulphite 
and also alcohol. The silver hyposulphite 
which will be precipitated is to be well 
washed and dried. The fluid must al- 
ways be freshly prepared, since the silver 
hyposulphite, which can be preserved dry, 
soon decomposes in solution. Iron and 
steel can be plated with this fluid di- 
rectly, without previous copperplating, 
and one advantage which it possesses is 
that it is free from the poisonous potas- 
sium cyanide. 

4. — Brass. — Silver nitrate, 29 grams 
(29 parts) ; potassium cyanide, 120 
grams (120 parts) ; washed chalk, 30 
grams (30 parts) ; water, 1 1. (1,000 
parts). 

Hot Method. — Plating can be done by 
boiling with liquids whose composition is 
similar to those employed in cold plat- 
ing. If, for instance, the objects to be 
silvered are put into a compound consist- 
ing of 6 parts of tartar, 6 of salt, and 1 
of silver chloride, there will be obtained, 
after fifteen or twenty minutes' boiling, a 
beautiful and durable silver plating, 
which, however, is not very lustrous. If 
a brilliant luster is desired, the objects 
may be heated, on coming from the plat- 
ing fluid, in a solution consisting of 3 
parts of sodium hyposulphite in 32 of 
water, and 1 of sugar of lead in 16 of 
water. Black lead sulphide will be pre- 
cipitated, and after ten or fifteen minutes' 
heating the objects will have a bright coat- 
ing of silver. The heating temperature 
should be from 70° to 80° C. 

TIN 
Preparation for Tinning 

To prepare tin for tinning brass, copper 
and iron. — Melt the metal in a crucible 
which has previously been slightly 
warmed ; and at the moment the metal 
begins to set, and when it is very brittle, 
pound it up rapidly, and sift when cold 
to remove any large particles. 

Processes 

Perhaps the best and cheapest substi- 
tute for silver as a white coating for 
tableware, culinary vessels, and the in- 
numerable articles of manufacture re- 



quiring such a coatiiag, is pure tin. It 
does not compare favorably with silver in 
point of hardness or wearing qualities, but; 
it costs very much less than silver, is 
readily applied, and easily kept clean and 
bright. 

There are several methods in use by 
which small articles, wire, etc., of iron, 
copper, brass, zinc and composition, are 
tin plated. These are : 1. By contact 
with melted tin. 2. By tin amalgam. 3. 
By simple immersion. 4. By battery. 

1. — Contact Process. — The contact proc- 
ess is that by which all sheet tin, or, more 
properly, tinned sheet iron, is produced. 
In tinning hollow ware on the inside, 
the metal is first thoroughly cleansed by 
pickling it in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
scouring it with fine sand. It is then 
heated over a fire to about the melting 
point of tin, sprinkled with powdered 
rosin, and partly filled with melted pure 
grain tin covered with rosin to prevent 
its oxidation. The vessel is then quickly 
turned and rolled about in every direc- 
tion, so as to bring every part of the 
surface in contact with the molten metal. 
The greater part of the tin is then 
thrown out, and the surface rubbed over 
with a brush of tow to equalize the coat- 
ing. The operation is repeated, if neces- 
sary. The vessels usually tinned in this 
manner are of copper and brass, but with 
a little care in cleansing and manipulat- 
ing, iron can also be satisfactorily tinned 
in this manner. The vessels must be hot 
enough to keep the tin contained in them 
fused. 

2. — Amalgam Process. — The amalgam 
process is not used so much as it was 
formerly. It consists in applying to the 
clean and dry metallic surface a film of a 
pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and 
then exposing the surface to heat, which 
volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin ad- 
hering to the metal. 

3. — Immersion Process. — The immer- 
sion process is best adapted to coating 
articles of brass or copper. When im- 
mersed in a hot solution of tin properly 
prepared the metal is precipitated upon 
their surfaces. One of the best solutions 
for this purpose is the following: Am- 
monia alum, 171^ oz. ; boiling water, 12i^ 
oz. ; protochloride of tin, 1 oz. The arti- 
cles to be tinned, first thoroughly cleansed, 
are put into the hot solution until proper- 
ly whitened. 

4. — A better coating can be obtained by 
using the following bath, and placing the 
pieces in contact with a strip of clean 
zinc, also immersed : Bitartrate of po- 
tassium, 14 oz. ; water (soft), 24 oz. ; 



[237] 



(Galvanizing) 



(Galvanizing) 



protochloride of tin, 1 oz. It should be 
boiled for a few minutes before using. 

Brass 

Small articles of brass like hooks and 
eyes may be covered with a thin coating 
of tin by any of the following methods : 

1. — Make a saturated solution of cream 
of tartar in boiling water; place the arti- 
cles to be coated between sheets of tin, 
immerse in the liquid, and boil until a 
sufficient deposit has been obtained. The 
brass should be freshly cleansed by im- 
mersion in dilute acid and subsequent 
washing or otherwise, just before being 
submitted to the tinning operation. The 
articles after being coated are washed in 
water and brightened by being shaken 
with bran. 

2. — Boil peroxide of tin with a strong, 
aqueous caustic potash solution, until the 
liquid is saturated with tin, and immerse 
the articles in this solution. 

3. — Roseleur recommends the following 
method : Prepare a solution of chloride 
of tin in crystals, 6 parts ; pyrophosphate 
of sodium, 60 parts ; distilled water, 3,000 
parts. Place the articles on perforated 
zinc strays, immerse in the solution, and 
boil, stirring the contents occasionally to 
change the points of contact. The zinc 
trays are to be scraped clean after each 
operation to insure perfect contact in the 
next. 

Castings 

1. — Cleanse the castings by pickling in 
dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 20 of water) 
and scouring with sand ir necessary. Then 
boil them in concentrated aqueous solu- 
tion of stannate of soda, with a quantity 
of granulated tin. To copper iron cast- 
ings, clean the iron as above and tumble 
it for a few minutes in sawdust moistened 
with a solution of copper in two gallons 
of water made slightly acid with sulphuric 
acid. Wash immediately in hot water. 

2. — To tin small castings, clean and 
boil them with scraps of block tin in a 
solution of cream of tartar. 

Cold Process. — Take equal parts of 
quicksilver and block tin and melt them 
together. Mix also equal parts of muri- 
atic acid and water. Apply the amalgam 
with a clean rag steeped in the acid mix- 
ture. 

ZINC 

1. — For galvanizing cast iron with zinc, 
first clean the castings thoroughly by im- 
mersing in a bath of 1 part muriatic acid, 
2 Darts water, for a few hours; wash 
thnroughlv in hot water and scrub with 
brush and sand. Then dip in a solution 



of sal ammoniac and water, i^ lb. to the 
gal., hot. Dry quickly and dip in the 
zinc bath. 

2. — To galvanize sheet-iron work, dip 
in a bath of muriatic acid 1 part, water 4 
parts ; leave the work in long enough to 
break up the scale ; clean with brushes or 
scrapers so that the surfaces shall be free 
from scale or dirt. Then dip in a fresh 
bath of muriatic acid and water, 1 to 
4, with about 1 oz. sal ammoniac to the 
gal. of solution. Then dry quickly and 
thoroughly in a hot oven or on hot plates 
of iron and dip in the zinc bath. Never 
dip if any moisture remains among laps 
or rivets, for an explosion will ensue. 
Heat the zinc so that it will have a clear 
shining surface. Sprinkle a little pow- 
dered sal ammoniac upon the surface to 
clear it. Skim away the dross. 

3. — Clean all scale, rust and dirt or oil 
from the surface, and if oily, by boiling 
in caustic soda, and then remove scale 
and rust by a bath of hydrochloric acid 
and water. If necessary a little scrub- 
bing with a metallic brush, and then 
thoroughly rinse in hot water and dry 
quickly. After drying immerse in a bath 
of melted zinc, at the same time sprinkle 
a little powdered sal ammoniac upon the 
surface of the melted zinc to clear it. 
Judgment is required as to length of time 
for the immersion and temperature of the 
melted zinc. Very small work immersed 
but a few seconds. 

Iron 

Electrolytic Method. — Perfectly bright 
iron, dipped in a solution of zinc vitriol, 
and exposed to a strong electrical current, 
becomes quickly coated over with pure 
zinc. The coating, however, is dull ; to 
give the usual luster of zinc, the sheets 
are quickly heated to the melting point 
of zinc, cooled, and passed between smooth 
rollers. 

Small Objects. — To galvanize small iron 
articles, such as chains, rings, hooks and 
nails, thereby protecting them from rust, 
they are first put into a vessel contain- 
ing dilute sulphuric acid, in order to 
pickle them bright, then dried, and put 
into the melted zinc. The usual method is 
to lay the articles into a net or basket 
of strong wire, and to immerse this in 
the melted metal, shaking it around to 
make sure that all the pieces come in 
contact with the zinc. After remaining 
two or three minutes in the zinc bath, 
they are removed and thrown into a little 
flame-oven, covered with powdered coal 
and brought to a red heat. The excess 
of zinc is hereby melted off, and collects 



[238] 



(Galvanizing) 



(Galvanizing) 



in the lowest parts of the bottom of the 
oven. The articles are then drawn with 
rakes into the higher portions of the oven, 
moved around until the zinc coating has 
hardened, and the adhering coal powder is 
then rubbed off. 

The zinc coatings on small articles are 
more durable if the objects are first lightly 
copperplated before galvanizing. The 
simplest way of doing this is to put them, 
after pickling, into a trough and pour 
over them a solution of one part of blue 



vitriol to ten of water; after having re- 
mained a few moments in contact with 
the fluid, they are removed, rinsed and 
thrown into the zinc bath. The thickness 
of the zinc coating varies according to 
the time during which the objects are left 
in contact with the fluid zinc; experi- 
ments have shown that in the case of 
galvanized sheet iron, the thickness of the 
layer varies from 0.006 to 0.043 milli- 
meter, which corresponds to 45-300 gram 
of zinc per square meter of surface. 



f239T 



CHAPTER VI. 



GLASS 



Bending Glass Tubes 

1. — Place the part where the curve is 
required in the flame of a spirit lamp or 
in an ordinary gas flame (the whole of 
the surface must be equally heated) ; 
when the glass begins to soften, a gen- 
tle pressure by the hands will give the 
necessary bend. 

2. — Fill them with sand ; this is neces- 
sary in three cases : when the tube is 
very wide, when the glass is thin, ana 
when the curve is to be of a very long 
radius ; in the latter case, the tube, filled 
with sand, is best heated over a large fur- 
nace with burning charcoal. 

Blowing Glass 

The technique of glass blowing is so 
comprehensive that it cannot be described 
in suflficient detail in a book of formulas. 
There are, however, two excellent little 
books on the subject which are profusely 
illustrated, and which are very inexpen- 
sive. To them the reader is referred. 

Breaking (See also Cutting) 

1. — Easy method of breaking glass to 
any required form. Make a small notch, 
by means of a file, on the edge of a piece 
of glass, then make the end of a tobacco 
■pipe, or a rod of iron of about the same 
size, red hot in the fire ; apply the hot 
iron to the notch, and draw it slowly 
along the surface of the glass in any di- 
rection you please ; a crack will be made 
in the glass, and will follow the direc- 
tion of the iron. 

2. — Round glass bottles and flasks may 
be cut in the middle by wrapping around 
them a worsted thread dipped in spirits 
of turpentine, and setting it on fire when 
fastened on the glass. 

3. — In breaking a glass tube — e.g., a 
combustion tube — a small scratch is made 
with a file at the required place. At 
each side of this scratch, and about 1 to 2 
mm. away from it, a small roll of wet 
blotting paper is laid around the tube. 
The free space between is then heated 
all around over a Bunsen burner, or, bet- 
ter still, over a small blowpipe flame. 
A clean and even fracture is thus ob- 
tained, exactly between the two rolls, 
without dropping water on the hot glass. 



The rolls are made by cutting two strips 
of filter paper sufficiently large to form 
rolls 1 to 2 mm. high and 2 to 4 cm. 
wide. The strips are folded once, length- 
ways, laid on the table, moistened, flat- 
tened out, and then wrapped on to the 
tube, so that the fold lies nearest the file 
scratch, and fold lies accurately upon fold 
in the successive layers. The thickness 
of the rolls, and their distance apart, has, 
of course, to be varied according to the 
diameter of the tubes. Equally good 
results are obtained with the thinnest test 
tubes, the thickest combustion tubes, 
beakers, flasks and glass bell jars. In 
those cases, where the sides are slanting, 
as, for instance, with funnels, an obvi- 
ous alteration in the construction of the 
paper rolls need only be carried out. 

Cutting Glass (See also Bending, 
Breaking, Drilling and Boring) 

Cutting. — 1. — To cut glass well a fine 
diamond should be used, and consider- 
able skill is required in its use. The 
file and the red-hot poker are also effi- 
cient means of cutting glass, the crack 
following the hot iron. 

2. — Bottles. — a. — This method consists 
in the use of what in German is called 
"sprengkohle," cracking cold. The 
"sprengkohle" is made of finely ground 
limewood charcoal. The coal powder is 
transformed by means of sufficient gum 
tragacanth and water into a dough or 
paste, out of which small cylinders of the 
size of a pencil are made by rolling be- 
tween two small pieces of board. Such 
a cylinder of sprengkohle, ignited at one 
end, glows slowly. Such sprengkohle may 
be bought at stores for chemical and phys- 
ical necessities. Now as for the use of 
the sprengkohle, it is as follows : Put a 
drop of water on the spot where the crack 
is to begin. Make a short incision with 
^ three-edged file. Wipe the water away. 
Touch the incision with the glowing 
"sprengkohle," blowing on it if required. 
After a few seconds the glass will cracK 
for a length of % to 1 in. If now you 
move the sprengkohle slowly the crack 
follows it wherever you please. 

3. — Holes, Large, To Cut. — Bore a hole 
in the center by means of a hard steel 



[2411 



(Drilling and Boring) 



(Drilling and Boring) 



drill moistened with turpentine; cut the 
circle with a good glazier's iiamond, guid- 
ed by a small piece of copper wire cen- 
tered in the hole just bored, and by means 
of cuts radiating from the center to the 
circumference divide the circle into nu- 
merous small sectors. Then, with a small 
piece of metal, tap the glass on the pos- 
terior side gently, following each cut 
throughout its extent. When this has 
been properly done fasten a piece of putty 
over the area of the circle on the cut side 
of the glass, and, while holding the putty, 
tap the glass on the other side firmly in 
the center of the circle. Too much press- 
ure on the diamond will cause it to 
scratch, without cutting the glass. 

Carbon Points for Splitting Glass. — 1. 
— Gum arable, 10 dr. ; water, 3 oz. ; trag- 
acanth, powdered, 4 dr.; hot water, 8 
oz. ; storax, 2 dr. ; benzoin, 2 dr. ; alco- 
hol, 91°, 9 dr.; powdered charcoal, '6 to 
3V2 oz. Dissolve the gum arable in the 
cold water and mix it with the paste 
made from the tragacanth and hot water. 
To the mucilage add the rosins, dissolved 
in the alcohol, and enough finely powdered 
charcoal to form a mass to be rolled into 
cylinders of suitable length, and about 
4-10 of an in. in diameter. While roll- 
ing the sticks, powdered charcoal is em- 
ployed to prevent adhesion. When thor- 
oughly dry, the pencils are ready for use, 
and are managed as follows : One end is 
sharpened like a lead pencil, and ignited ; 
then, the glass having been scratched with 
a diamond, the heated and glowing point 
of the pencil is carried close to the glass 
in the direction in which it is intended to 
split it. 

2. — The following receipts produce a 
pencil burning more rapidly than the 
above: Gum tragacanth, 1 dr.; hot wa- 
ter, 10 dr. ; acetate of lead, 3 dr. ; finely 
powdered charcoal, 6 dr. Proceed as for- 
merly. 

3.— Sticks of willow or poplar, or any 
soft wood of about the thickness of a 
finger, are thoroughly dried, and immersed 
for about 7 days in a concentrated solu- 
tion of sugar of lead. When dry they 
are ready for use, and burn quite readily 
and evenly. 

Drilling and Boring Glass 

1. — In the Scientific American these di- 
rections are given: Make a solution of 
1 oz. of camphor, l^/^ oz. of spirits of tur- 
pentine and 3 dr. of ether. Keep the 
end of the drilling tool wet with this 
fluid. The sharp corner of a freshly 
broken point of a file is one of the best 
drilling tools for this purpose. 



2. — To drill a i/4-in. hole in a glass 
shade, make a hole in a piece of wood 
or metal of the size that you desire to 
drill in the glass. Fasten it with bees- 
wax upon the glass for a guide. A piece 
of brass or copper tubing, quite thin, is 
supplied with emery (No. 100) and water 
and twirled between the fingers or with 
a bowstring. This will cut a hole in a 
few minutes. You can feed the emery 
and water a little at a time through the 
tube. 

3. — Can.be done with a hard drill and 
spirits of turpentine — a tedious and un- 
certain process, and only for small holes. 
A diamond drill is much better and cheap- 
er, if there are many holes to drill. If 
large holes are wanted, from % to 1 in., 
or larger, prepare a piece of thin tubing, 
of brass or copper, of the required size 
of hole, of 1 or 2 in. in length, with small 
spindle and grooved pulley attached, some- 
thing after the style of die watchmaker's 
bow drill. Fasten upon the plate of glass, 
at the point to be drilled, a ring of metal 
or wood for a guide to keep the tubular 
drill in its place until the cut is started 
sufficiently to steady the cutter. Lay the 
glass plate horizontally, and work the 
drill perpendicularly with the bow, using 
one hand to steady the uper end of the 
drill stock. Feed emery (about No. 90) 
and water into the open end of the tube 
as fast as required. In a very short time 
you will cut a disk out of the plate. 

4. — For drilling holes in glass, a com- 
mon steel drill, well made, and well tem- 
pered, the Glassware Review claims to be 
the best tool. The steel should be forged 
at a low temperature, so as to be sure 
not to burn it, and then tempered as 
hard as possible in a bath of salt water 
that has been well boiled. Such a drill 
will go through glass very rapidly if kept 
well moistened with turpentine in which 
some camphor has been dissolved. Dilute 
sulphuric acid is equally good, if not bet- 
ter. It is stated that at Berlin glass cast- 
ings for pump barrels, etc., are drilled, 
planed and bored like iron ones, and in 
the same lathes and machines, by aid of 
sulphuric acid. A little practice witn 
these different i^ians will enable the op- 
erator to cut and work glass as easily 
as brass or iron. 

5. — The following directions were con- 
tributed to Design and Work by an op- 
tician : First make a saturated solution 
of camphor in smrits of turpentine ; then 
make a spear-shappd drill the size of the 
hole required : heat the drill to a white 
heflt. and plunge into mercury, and it 
will then be very hard ; sharpen on an 
oilstone, knock drill in a bradawl handle, 



1242] 



(Etching) 



(Etching) 



dip the end of drill into the above solu- 
tion, and work it as if you were worKing 
it through wood. It is no use fixing the 
drill in a drillstock, because the motion 
all one way will not do. Keep the drill 
well moistened with the solution, and 
sharpen it when blunt. A file, dipped 
into the solution, will file the hole larger 
and will not get blunt. 

Etching 

In the opaque etching of glass it has 
hitherto been thought necessary to use 
certain expensive fluorine salts in the 
preparation of etching solutions. It has 
been discovered by A. Lainer that com- 
paratively cheap etching can be prepared. 
In Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, 
Lainer gives two recipes which obviate 
the use of the more expensive fluorine 
salts. 

1. — Two solutions are first prepared : 
(a) Consisting of 10 grams of soda in 
20 grams of warm water; (b) consistinsr 
of 10 grams of potassium carbonate in 
20 grams of warm water. Solutions (a) 
and (b) are now mixed, and to the mix- 
ture is added 20 grams of concentrated 
hydrofluoric acid, and afterward a solu- 
tion (c) consisting of 10 grams of potas- 
sium sulphate in 10 grams of water is 
added. 

2. — This recipe contains the following 
ingredients : Water, 4 c.c. ; potassium 
carbonate, 1 1-3 grams ; dilute hydro- 
fluoric acid, 0.5 c.c. ; hydrochloric acid, 
5 c.c. ; potassium sulphate, 0.5 c.c. This 
mixture is treated with hydrofluoric acid 
ond carbonate of potassium until it pro- 
duces the required degree of opacity on 
being tried upon a piece of glass. 

.3. — But it appears that there is a still 
simpler process than either of these. It 
was invented by Herr Kampmann, of Vi- 
enna. In preparing an opaque etching 
fluid, Kampmann uses a wooden vessel, 
the iron fittings of which are protected 
from the corrosive action of the acid 
fumes by a layer of asphalted material. 
This vessel is filled to about one-fifth of 
its contents with strong hydrofluoric acid, 
which is then partially neutralized by 
cautiously and gradually adding some 
crystals of soda ; more soda is added, and 
the mixture is stirred with a small wood- 
en rod. The point at which the neutral- 
ization of the acid should cease is indi- 
cated by the mixture frothing and becom- 
ing sufficiently viscid to adhere to the stir- 
ring rod. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary 
to say that the acid fumes are highly 
injurious, and that this process should 
be carried on in the open air, in order 
to allow the vapor to pass rapidly away. 



The most hygienic and satisfactory proc- 
ess of all would be to carry on the opera- 
tion in a draught cupboard. The con- 
tents of this wooden vessel now consist 
of sodium fluoride and the unneutralized 
hydrofluoric acid. This mixture is now 
transferred to a wooden tub, and diluted 
with from 5 to 10 times its volume ot 
water, according to the degree of dilu- 
tion that is desired. It is objectionable 
to use this mixture in a too highly con- 
centrated condition, for then the etched 
surface of the glass is irregular, coarse- 
grained, and apparently strewn with tiny 
crystals; if, on the other hand, the dilu- 
tion be too extreme, the etched surfaces 
will be transparent instead of opaque. 
Either of these two conditions of the etch- 
ing fluid can easily be remedied ; for, if 
it be too strong, water must be added; 
and if too weak, a small quantity of 
hydrofluoric acid, partially neutralized 
with soda, must be mixed in. 

4. — A good recipe for preparing a small 
quantity of this etching fluid is the fol- 
lowing: Commercial hydrofluoric acid 
240 c.c. ; powdered crystallized soda, 600 
grams ; water, 100 c.c. These etching flu- 
ids are best us'^d by taking the following 
precautions : The glass is first thorough- 
ly cleansed from all impurities, and is 
then provided with a rim of wax com- 
posed of the following ingredients : Bees- 
wax, tallow, colophony and powdered as- 
phalt, kneaded together. The rim pre- 
vents the acid from spreading over those 
parts of the surface which it is not de- 
sired to etch. The glass is now etched 
for a few minutes with an ordinary etch- 
ing solution (H.F. — 1 : 10), which is then 
poured off, the surface being afterward 
washed with water and wiped as dry as 
posisble with a piece of sponge. The sur- 
fncp is now ready for the opaque etching 
fluid, which is poured on till it forms a 
thick layer. The operation is allowed to 
progress for an hour, when the liquid is 
poured away and the surface washed with 
water. Water is further allowed to stand 
on the glass until a thin film of silicate 
is observed to form; this film is then 
brushed off, and the surface finally 
cleansed with water, and the wax re- 
moved. By varying the action of this 
opaque etching fluid or paste, various de- 
grees of opacity may be produced, and if 
the opacity be greater than that which is 
desired, the surface can be cleared to any 
extent by using the etching solution of 
hydrofluoric acid. 

5. — Fancy work, with ornamental fig- 
ures, lettering and monograms, are most 
easily and neatly cut into glass by the 
sandblast process. Lines and figures on 



i243] 



(Etching) 



(Etching) 



tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etche. 
by smearing the surface of the glass with 
beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel 
point, and exposing the glass to the fumes 
of hydrofluoric acid. This acid is ob- 
tained by putting powdered fluorspar into 
a tray made of sheet lead, and pouring 
sulphuric acid on it, after which the tray 
is slightly warmed. The proportions will, 
of course, vary with the purity of the 
materials used, fluorspar (except when in 
crystals) being generally mixed with a 
large quantity of other matter ; but this 
point need not affect the success of the 
operation. Enough acid to make a thin 
paste with the powdered spar will be 
about right. Where a lead tray is not at 
hand, the powdered spar may be poured 
on the glass and the acid poured on it, 
and left for some time. As a general rule, 
^ the marks are opaque, but sometimes they 
are transparent. In this case, cut them 
deeply and fill up with black varnish, if 
they are required to be very plain, as in 
the case of graduated vessels. Liquid 
hydrofluoric acid has been recommended 
for etching, but is not suitable, as it 
leaves the surface on which it acts trans- 
parent. The agent which corrodes the 
glass is a gas which does not remain in 
the mixture of spar and acid, but passes 
off in the vapor. The following formula 
has been published under the title of 
"Etching Ink" : Ammonium fluoride, 2 
dr. ; barium sulphate, 2 dr. Reduce to 
a fine powder in a mortar, then trans- 
fer to a lead dish, and make into a thin 
writing cream with hydrofluoric acid 
(some make use of fuming sulphuric 
acid). Use a piece of lead to stir the 
mixture. The "ink" may be put up in 
bottles coated with paraflBne, which can 
be done by heating the bottle, pouring in 
some melted paraffine, and letting it flow 
all around. The writing is done with 
a quill, and in about half a minute the 
ink is washed off. Extreme caution must 
be observed in handling the acid, since, 
when brought in contact with the skin 
it produces dangerous sores, very diflfi- 
cult to heal. The vapor is also danger- 
ously poisonous when inhaled. 

6. — Mix in a lead flask 30 parts of 
ammonium fluoride, 15 parts of distilled 
water and 6 parts of pure sulphuric acid ; 
warm to 40° C. — but not higher — and 
add, after cooling, 6 parts of strong hy- 
drofluoric acid and 1 to 2 parts of gum 
arable in solution. Close the flask with 
a well fitting lead stopper. For particu- 
larly delicate drawings the quantity of 
gum arable should be increased. Steel 
pens or goose quills may be used. 



7. — Sodium fluoride, 36 parts; potas- 
sium sulphate, 7 parts; distilled water, 
500 parts. Mix. 

8. — Zinc chloride, 14 parts; distilled 
water, 500 parts ; acid hydrochloric, 65 
parts. Mix. Dissolve in separate ves- 
sels, and mix the solutions only when re- 
quired for use. Write with a clean quill 
pen, being careful not to get too much 
of the liquid on the pen, as there is dan- 
ger of blotting. The writing or etching 
appears in the course of a half hour. 

9. — (Commonly used for etching glass 
tumblers : Sodium fluoride, 1 oz. ; gla- 
cial acetic acid, 10 dr. ; water, 25 oz. 
Dissolve the sodium fluoride in water and 
add the acetic acid. The article to be 
etched is first coated with etching var- 
nish, which is scratched off where a pat- 
tern is desired, and then immersed in 
the solution. The fluid is sometimes ap- 
plied by means of a rubber stamp. 

10. — Ammonium fluoride, 10% ; barium 
sulphate, 10% ; hydrofluoric acid, fuming, 
enough. Use enough acid to decompose 
the ammonium fluoride. 

11. — Ammonium fluoride, 10% ; barium 
sulphate, 30% ; water, enough. This is 
made into a semi-liquid mixture, and may 
be applied with a common pen. 

12. — Sodium fluoride, 0.72% ; potas- 
sium sulphate, 0.14% ; water, 240%. 
Make, and add to the foregoing, another 
solution, consisting of zinc chloride, 
0.28% ; hydrochloric acid, 40% ; water, 
40%. At the end of half an hour the 
design should be sufiiciently etched. 

13. — Sandblasting Process. — The proc- 
ess here described consists in corroding 
glass by violently projecting sand upon 
its surface by means of a current of air 
or steam. The apparatus used is very 
simple. Well dried sand, contained in a 
cylindrical vessel, is allowed to flow in a 
continuous manner through a tube, 
whose length and inclination can be al- 
tered at will so as to regulate the fall of 
the sand. The tube conveying the cur- 
rent of air or steam terminates just above 
this spout, in a nozzle containing a se- 
ries of fine holes. The sand, urged on 
by the jet, is thrown violently against the 
glass plate, or other body placed with- 
in its range, and thus exerts a corroding 
action. By varyizig the quantity_of the 
sand, the volume and velocity of the cur- 
rent, as well as the diameter of the jet, 
more or less rapid effects are produced. 
In engraving on glass, very little pressure 
is needed, the current from the bellows 
of an enameler's lamp being quite suflSi- 
eient. In this way the divisions on grad- 
uated tubes, the labels on bottles, etc.. 



[244] 



(Frosting) 



(Powdering) 



can easily be engraved in laboratories 
with but little trouble. The portions of 
the glass which are to remain clear are 
covered with paper, or with an elastic 
varnish, these substances being sufficient- 
ly exempt from the corroding action of 
the sand. 

Frosting Glass 

1. — Rub over with a little bag of mus- 
lin filled with fine sand, powdered glass, 
or grindstone grit, and water. Some 
sand may be placed directly on the glass. 

2. — Clean the windows thoroughly, and 
moisten with hydrofluoric acid. When 
frosted enough, wash thoroughly. 

3. — Make a saturated solution of alum 
water, and wet the glass with the liquid. 
It is advisable to have the glass in a 
horizontal position, as the solution is 
not likely to drain off. The more slowly 
it is cooled the more perfect the crystals 
will be. If desired, the alum solution 
may be colored with cochineal, and, of 
course, the more solution used the thicker 
will be the crystals. 

4. — Dissolve 2 tablespoonfuls of Epsom 
salts in 1 pt. of lager beer, and apply 
the brush. 

5. — Sandarach, 18 dr. ; mastic, 4 dr. ; 
ether, 24 oz. ; benzine, 16 to 18 oz. This 
mixture is to be painted on the glass. 

6. — Frosted glass may be oranmented 
as follows : Choose some pretty pattern 
of lace curtains, lay it upon thin paper, 
and then with a pencil trace the outlines. 
After making as many layers as you re- 
quire patterns, cut out the designs at 
one time through the several layers of 
paper with sharp scissors. Fasten the 
pattern with tacks to the frame around 
each pane of glass yoL wish to decorate. 
Tie up a piece of putty in a piece of 
thin muslin, leaving enough of the latter 
to hold instead of a handle. With this 
dabble all over the part of the glass which 
the pattern leaves bare. When the pat- 
tern on the glass is dry remove the paper 
and varnish the glass. 

7. — Dip a piece of flat marble into 
glass-cutter's sharp sanJ moistened with 
water ; rub over the glass, dipping fre- 
quently in sand and water. If the frost- 
ing is required very fine, finish off with 
emery and water. 

8. — As a temporary frosting for win- 
dows, mix together a strong, hot solution 
of epsom salt and a clear solution of 
gum arable; apply warm. 

, —Use a strong solution of sodium 
suiphate, warm, and when cool wash with 
gum water. 

10. — ^Daub the glass with a lump of 
glazier's putty, carefully and uniformly, 



until the surface is equally covered. This 
is an excellent imitation of ground glass, 
and is not disturbed by rain or damp. 

Grinding Glass Tube 

It is very easy to true the interior of 
glass tube by chucking same (cemented 
hot by pitch) into a true hole bored by a 
slide rest in a wooden carver-iS chuck, at- 
tached to a lathe face plate. Then grind 
out with fine emery the interior by slid- 
ing a rod of steel one-third less diameter, 
fixed firmly and truly in the slide rest tool 
holder, so as to just bear upon the de- 
scending side of the inner tube, as the 
former moves in and out, and is con- 
stantly supplied with plenty of water and 
fresh emery. Polish by wrapping a few 
thicknesses of alpaca or linen round the 
steel, and use finely washed rouge. This 
is the only way to get a perfectly true 
barrel. 

Ground Glass 

Lainer recommends the following proc- 
ess in the Chemiker Zeitung : Mix 240 
c. cm. of commercial hydrofluoric acid of 
1.258 specific gravity with 600 grams of 
pulverized soda crystals, then dilute with 
1000 c. cm. of water. After standing for 
some time a sediment is formed, and over 
it a clear solution. The thoroughly 
cleaned glass pane is produced with a wax 
edge (prepared by kneading yellow wax 
with tallow, rosin and asphalt powder) 
and pre-etched with common hydrofluoric 
acid (1: 10) for some minutes to obtain 
an absolutely clean glass surface. Then 
wash with water and wipe the plate with 
a clean, soft sponge until the surface is 
only slightly moist. Stir up the paste of 
the etching acid, and pour the mass % 
to_ 1 cm. high upon the pane. With this 
mixture a nice normal deadening is ob- 
tained after one hour. If the acid is old, 
having been used often, it may be made to 
act longer upon the plate of glass. The 
liquid is poured back into the vat, and 
the glass is rinsed off with water. Then 
the water is allowed to remain upon the 
pane until a skin, formed from the sur- 
face of the glass, can be removed with the 
finger or a brush. The strong deadening 
obtained^ by this method can be fixed to 
any desired degree of transparency by 
etching with hydrofluoric acid. 

Powdering 

Powdered glass is frequently used in- 
stead of paper, cloth, cotton or sand for 
filtering varnishes, acids, etc. It is not 
soluble or corrodible. Sand, if purely 
silicious, would be better, but such sand 
is difficult to get; it too often contains 



[245] 



(Silvering) 



(Silvering) 



matters which are easily corroded or dis- 
solved. Powdered glass, when glued to 
paper, is also used for polishing wooa 
and other materials. It cuts rapidly and 
cleanly, and is better than sand for most 
purposes. Glass is easily pulverized after 
being heated red hot and plunged into 
cold water. It cracks in every direction, 
becomes hard and brittle, and breaks with 
keenly cutting edges. After being pound- 
ed in a mortar it may be divided into 
powders of different degrees of fineness 
by being sifted through lawn sieves. 

Silvering Glass 

1. — Ordinary water must never be used 
in silvering; it must always be distilled 
water. (a) Reducing Solution: In 12 
oz. of water dissolve 12 gr. of Rochelle 
salts, and boil; while boiling, add 16 gr. 
of nitrate of silver dissolved in 1 oz. of 
water, and continue the boiling for 10 
minutes more; then add water to make 
12 oz. (b) Silvering solution: Dissolve 
1 oz. of nitrate of silver in 10 oz. of 
water, then add liquid ammonia until the 
brown precipitate is nearly, but not quite, 
all dissolved; then add 1 oz. of alcohol, 
and sufficient water to make 12 oz. To 
silver: Take equal parts of (a) and (b), 
mix thoroughly, and lay the glass, face 
down, on top of the mixture while wet, 
after it has been carefully cleaned with 
soda and well rinsed with clean water. 
Distilled water should be used for mak- 
ing the solutions. About 2 dr. of each 
will silver a plate 2 in. square. The 
dish in which the silvering is done should 
be only a little larger than the plate. The 
solution should stand and settle for 2 or 
3 days before being used, and will keep 
good a long time. 

2. — (a) Nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. (b) Caustic potash, 1 oz. ; water, 
10 oz. (c) Glucose, i/^ oz. ; water, 10 
oz. The above quantities are those esti- 
mated for 250 sq. in. of surface ; add am- 
monia to solution (a) till the turbidity 
first produced is just cleared ; now add 
(b), and again ammonia to clear; then 
a little solution, drop by drop, till the 
appearance is decidedly turbid again ; then 
add (c), and apply to the clean glass 
surface. A film was obtained in 43 min- 
utes at a temperature of 56° F. 

3. — First take 80 gr. of nitrate of sil- 
ver (either lunar caustic or the crystal- 
lized salt), and dissolve it in 10 oz. of 
water, preferably distilled or rain water. 
To this add 2 oz. of alcohol and 2 oz. 
of anua ammonia. The ammonia is added 
to the solution, drop by drop, until the 
nropipitate at first formed is dissolved. 
The solution is then allowed to settle for 



3 or 4 hours, when it is ready for use, and 
forms solution No. 1. Then take 6 oz. 
of water and dissolve it in 24 grams of 
nitrate of silver, and add to the same 
30 grams of arsenite or tartrate of cop- 
per, and then add, drop by drop, sufficient 
aqua ammonia to dissolve the precipitate 
of oxide of silver at first formed, and the 
arsenite or tartrate of copper, after which 
add 2 oz. of alcohol. Then make a sepa- 
rate solution of 48 grams of potassa in 
16 oz. of water. This last mentioned so- 
lution is brought to a boiling tempera- 
ture in an evaporating dish, after which 
the solution of nitrate of silver and ar- 
senite or tartrate of copper is added, drop 
by drop, to the boiling solution of po- 
tassa, and the boiling is continued for 
about an hour, or until a white film col- 
lects on the surface, after which it is 
allowed to cool and filter, when it is ready 
for use, and forms solution No. 2, In 
depositing the alloy upon the glass, take 
a suitable quantity of filtered water, pref- 
erably rain or distilled water, and add 
to it equal parts of solutions Nos. 1 and 
2, and mix the whole thoroughly, and ap- 
ply this solution in any convenient man- 
ner to the glass to be coated, and the 
deposition immediately commences, and is 
allowed to continue, say, for about 10 
minutes, until the metal in solution is 
entirely exhausted, when the glass will 
be covered with a coating of the alloy, 
having a brilliant reflecting surface ad- 
joining the glass. In order to increase 
the durability of the coating it is pref- 
erable to deposit a second coating upon 
the first, which is done by repeating the 
operation before the first coating is dry, 
and after the coating is completed, gener- 
ally cover the whole with a heavy coat 
of asphaltum varnish, although this is 
not absolutely necessary, as the metallic 
alloy is sufficiently hard to stand ordi- 
nary wear without it. By the above de- 
scribed process an alloy having all the 
qualities of hardness and durability of the 
ordinary alloys of copper and silver is 
deposited upon the glass, and the degree 
of hardness may be varied or modified 
by varying the proportions of the differ- 
ent ingredients employed. Other salts of 
copper besides the arsenite or tartrate 
may be employed in conjunction with the 
nitrate of silver. 

4. — Silvering solution : Dissolve 48 gr. 
of silver nitrate in 1 oz. of distilled water, 
and to the solution add ammonia water 
until the precipitate at first thrown down 
by it is nearly, but not quite, redissolved. 
Let stand for an hour or two, then filter, 
and to the filtrate add sufficient distilled 
water to make 12 fl.oz. Reducing solu^ 



[246] 



(Silvering) 



(Silvering) 



tion : In a flask of sufficient capacity 
dissolve 12 gr. of sodium and potassium 
tartrate (Rochelle salt) in 1 oz. of dis- 
tilled water. Bring to a boil, and while 
boiling add 2 gr. of silver nitrate dis- 
solved in 1 dr. of distilled water, i^et 
boil for 3 or 4 minutes, then remove from 
the fire; let cool down, and after letting 
stand a few minutes filter through paper. 
To the filtrate add sufficient distilled water 
to make, as before, 12 fl.oz. To use: 
Make the glass to be silvered chemically 
clean on the side on which the silver is 
to be deposited. To eirect this, cleanse 
first with sulphuric or nitric acid, rinse 
in running water, and then flood with 
liquor potassae If necessary, to get rid 
of grease, repeat these processes, rinse in 
running water, and finally in alcohol. Be 
careful not to let your fingers come in 
contact with the surface after cleansing, 
but handle the plate either with clean 
wooden forceps or in such manner that 
nothing comes in contact with the cleaned 
surface. To silver, equal parts of_ the 
fluids are necessary. As the deposition 
of the metal goes on from every direc- 
tion at once, but is strongest and best 
at the top, smaller mirrors are silvered 
by suspending the glass, cleaned surface 
downward, over a vessel having the same 
superficial area as the glass, set perfectly 
level, and filled with the mixed liquid. 
The surface of the glass should exactly 
touch that of the liquid at all points, ana 
care should be taken that no bubbles or 
air spaces are left between the surfaces. 
In warm weather, all that is necessary is 
to place the vessel and glass where the 
direct sunlight (or a strong diffused light) 
can reach it; but in cold weather the 
apparatus should be kept at a tempera- 
ture of from 90 to 110° F. The liquid 
at first becomes intensely black, but clears 
up as the reduction progresses. As soon 
as it becomes somewhat clear the process 
should be stopped, the glass removed and 
rinsed under running water, and allowed 
to dry spontaneously. The silvered^ sur- 
face should subsequently be varnished 
with a strong solution of shellac into 
which some thickening powder (such as 
English red) has been stirred. While the 
silvering and reducing liquids are the 
same, larger mirrors are treated very dif- 
ferently. 

5. — Dissolve 120 gr. of silver nitrate in 
2 oz. of distilled water, and pour this 
solution quickly into a boiling solution 
of 96 gr. of Rochelle salt in about 2 oz. 
of water. When cool, filter, and make 
up to 24 fl.oz. with distilled water. Now 
make a separate solution of 120 gr. of 
silver nitrate in 2 oz. of distilled water, 



and add ammonia until the precipitate is 
nearly redissolved. Make up to 24 fl.oz. 
with distilled water. For use, mix equal 
quantities of these two solutions just be- 
fore the silvering is to be done. 

6. — Dissolve 96 gr. of silver nitrate in 
2 oz. of distilled water, and add ammonia 
until the precipitate is nearly dissolved; 
filter, and make up to 24 fl. dr. with dis- 
tilled water. Now make a separate so- 
lution ot 42 gr. of Rochelle salt in 2 oz. 
of distilled water; boil this, and while 
boiling add 4 gr. of nitrate of silver, pre- 
viously dissolved in 2 dr. of water. When 
cool, filter, and make up to 24 fl.dr. For 
use, mix equal quantities of the two so- 
lutions just before the silvering is to be 
done. 

7. — Pure silver nitrate, 10 gr. to 1 oz. 
of distilled water; add carefully, drop by 
drop, strong ammonia, until the brown 
precipitate is redissolved. When adding 
the ammonia keep stirring with a glass 
rod. In another bottle make a solution 
of 10 gr. of pure crystallized Rochelle salt 
to 1 oz. of distilled watei- ; then, when 
you have all ready, pour on sufficient to 
cover all the glass, using two-thirds of 
the silver solution and one-third of the 
Rochelle salt. The mirror can be pre- 
pared well by cleansing it with a little 
wet rouge and polishing dry with a wash- 
leather ; then warm the glass before the 
fire, or by letting it lie in the sun, to 
about 70 or 80° F. Pour on the solution 
as described above, and let it stand in the 
warm sunshine i/^ to 1 hour. When sil- 
vered, pour on it some clean soft or dis- 
tilled water, and while still wet wipe it 
very gently all over with a little soft 
wadding, wet ; this will take off all the 
roughness, so that it will take but little 
rubbing with the rouge leather to polish 
it. When perfectly dry it is easily rubbed 
up to an exquisite polish. 

8. — Place a sheet of glass, previously 
washed clean with water, on a table, and 
rub the whole surface with a rubber of 
cotton, wetted with distilled water, and 
afterward with a solution of Rochelle salt 
in distilled water, 1 part of salt to 200 
parts of water. Then take a solution, 
previously prepared by adding silver ni- 
trate to ammonia of commerce, the silver 
being gradually added until a brown pre- 
cipitate commences to be produced ; the 
solution is then filtered. For each square 
yard of glass take as much of the above 
solution as contains 20 grams (about 
309 gr.) of silver, and to this add as 
much of a solution of Rochelle salt as 
contains 14 grams of salt, and the 
strength of the latter solution should be 
so adjusted to that of the silver solu- 



[24V] 



(Stoppers) 



(Writing on Glass) 



tion that the total weight of the mixture 
above mentioned may be 60 grams. In 
a minute or two after the mixture is made 
it becomes turbid, and it is then immedi- 
ately to be poured over the surface ot 
the glass, which has previously been 
placed on a perfectly horizontal table, but 
the plate is blocked up at one end to 
give it an inclination about 1 in 40; the 
liquid is then poured on in such a man- 
ner as to distribute it over the whole 
surface without allowing it to escape at 
the edges. When this is effected the plate 
is placed in a horizontal position at a 
temperature of about 68° F. The silver 
will begin to appear in about 2 minutes, 
and in 20 to 30 minutes sufficient silver 
will be deposited. The mixture is then 
poured off the plate, and the silver it 
contains is afterward recovered. The 
surface is then washed four or five times, 
and the plate is set up to dry. When dry, 
the plate is varnished by pouring over it 
a varnish composed of gum dammar, 20 
parts ; asphalt of bitumen, 5 parts ; gutta 
percha, 5 parts ; benzine, 75 parts. This 
varnish will set hard on the glass, and 
the plate is then ready for use. 

Varnish for Back of Silvered Mirrors. 
— Dammar gum, 20 parts ; asphalt, 3 
parts; gutta-percha, 5 parts; benzol, 75 
parts. Mix and dissolve. 

To use this varnish pour it over the 
silvered surface and move the plate back 
and forth until it is distributed evenly 
over the face. 

Stoppers 

Fitting. — 1. — To fit a stopper to a bot- 
tle that has not been ground, use emery or 
coarse sand kept constantly wet with 
water, and replaced with fresh as fast as 
it is reduced to powder. When all the 
surface has become equally rough, it is 
considered a sign that the glass has been 
ground to the proper shape, as until that 
time the projecting parts only show traces 
of erosion. This is the longest and hard- 
est part of the work, as after that the 
glass simply needs finishing and polish- 
ing. For that purpose emery only can be 
used, owing to the fact that the material 
can be obtained of any degrees of fineness, 
in this respect differing from sand. Other- 
wise the operation is the same as before, 
the emery being always kept moistened, 
and replaced when worn out. The grind- 
ing is continued until both the neck of 
the bottle and the stopper acquire a uni- 
fca'm finish, of a moderate degree of 
smoothness, and until the stopper fits so 



accurately that no shake can be felt in 
it, even though it be not twisted in tightly. 

2. — In stoppering a bottle, there are 
two processes ; ( a ) The mouth of the 
bottle is opened to the required size by 
a steel cone revolving in a lathe; (b) 
the stopper is fixed in a wooden chuck, 
reduced to proper dimensions, and finally 
ground into the mouth of the bottle. 

Removing. — 1. — Place the bottle firmly 
on a table, and hold it with the left hand. 
Then apply the right hand to the stopper, 
and pull it forcibly on one side, using the 
thumb as a fulcrum at the exterior of 
the neck of the bottle. If the stopper 
moves, the motion wiU be indicated I 
a ticking kind of noise ; and the stopper 
can then be withdrawn without further 
trouble. 2. — Tap the stopper on alternate 
sides with the handle of a hammer, or 
with a piece of wood (not resting it on 
a hard substance, but holding the bottle 
in the hand or between the knees) it can 
frequently be loosened. 3. — Dip one end 
of a cloth in boiling water, and then wrap 
it round the neck of the bottle ; the heat 
causes the neck to expand which allows 
the stopper more room, whereby it can 
often be removed with ease. 4. — The 
flame of a candle or small lamp may be 
applied to the neck of the bottle with the 
same effect. But in both cases the opera- 
tion must be performed quickly, in order 
that the heat may not get at the stopper 
and expand it, for if such is the case, 
it remains as firmly fixed as before. 5. — 
Pass a piece of strong twine round the 
neck of the bottle and fix one end of the 
string to a hook ; the neck will be heated 
by the friction occasioned by drawing the 
bottle rapidly backwards and forwards, 
the bottle being held in one hand, and 
the free end of the string in the other. 
The heat expands the neck as before 
described. 

Writing on Glass 

Ether, 500 gr. ; candarac, 30 gr. ; 
mastic, 30 gr. Dissolve, _ then add ben- 
zine in small quantities till the varnish, 
spread on a piece of glass, gives it the 
aspect of roughened glass. The varnish 
is used cold. To have a homogeneous 
layer, pour over that already formed, 
some oil of petroleum, let it evaporate a 
little, then rub in all directions with 
cambric cloth till all is quite dry. With 
ink or lead pencil, lines can be produced 
on this surface as fine as may be desired. 
Thus a drawing may be prepared in a 
few minutes and immediately projected. 



W. 



[248] 



CHAPTER VII. 



HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS— ANNEALING, BRAZING, 

CASEHARDENING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

AND WELDING 



The distinction between "Hardening" 
and "Tempering" should be closely drawn. 
The word temper refers to the process of 
drawing temper after steel work has been 
hardened. 

Oil tempering furnaces are designed to 
heat oil or tallow to about 600° F. and 
to control the temperature so as to draw 
any desired temper required in dies, cut- 
ters, punches, knives, shear blades, etc., 
which do not need to show the temper 
color. 

Air tempering furnaces are used to 
draw, "spring temper" and for all work 
which must show a temper color. 

Sand tempering machines are designed 
for special work to be drawn to any de- 
sired temper color, which must show on 
the surface, and especially for heavy 
pieces which cannot be heated quickly 
enough in hot air and require that they 
be kept in motion. 

ANNEALING 

Brass or Copper 

In working brass or copper it will be- 
come hard, and if hammered to any great 
extent will split. To prevent cracking 
or splitting, the piece must be heated to 
dull red heat and plunged in cold water ; 
this will soften it, so it can be worked 
easily. Be careful not to heat brass too 
hot, or it will fall to pieces. These pieces 
must be annealed frequently during the 
process of hammering. 

Cast Iron 

To anneal cast iron, heat it in a slow 
charcoal fire to a dull red heat ; then 
cover it over about 2 inches with finp 
charcoal ; then cover with ashes. Let it 
lie until cold. Hard cast iron can be 
softened enough in this way to be filed 
and drilled. 

Wrought Iron 

Chains. — Get your chain to a cherry 
red or bright red heat (it need not re- 
main in the furnace or fire afterward), 
tlien bury in charcoal dust or fine ashes ] 



until thoroughly cold. Chains are gener- 
ally made from "best best" iron, and are 
more liable to crystallization than more 
common iron would be, as it is purer. 

Steel 

1. — More steel is injured, and some- 
times spoiled, by over-annealing than in 
any other way. Steel overheated in an- 
nealing will shrink badly when being hard- 
ened ; besides, it takes the life out of it. 
It should never be heated above a low 
cherry red, and it should be a lower heat 
than it is when being hardened. It should 
be heated slowly, and given a uniform 
heat all over and through the piece. This 
it is difficult to do in long bars and in an 
ordinary furnace. The best way to heat 
a piece of steel, either for annealing ori 
hardening, is in red hot, pure lead. By 
this method it is done uniformly, and one 
can see the color all the time. 

2. — For a small quantity, heat the steel 
to a cherry red in a charcoal fire, then 
bury it in sawdust, in an iron box, cover- 
ing the sawdust with ashes. Let it stay 
until cold. For a larger quantity, and 
when it is required to be very soft, pack 
the steel with cast-iron (lathe or planer) 
chips in an iron box as follows : Having 
at least half or three-quarters of an inch 
in depth of chips in the bottom of the 
box put in a layer of steel, then more 
chips to fill the spaces between the steel 
and also the half or three-quarters of an 
inch space between the sides of the box 
and steel, then more steel ; and lastly, at 
least one inch in depth of the chips, well 
rammed down on top of the steel. Heat 
the whole to and keep at a red heat for 
from two to four hours. Do not disturb 
the box until cold. 

3. — Water Annealing. — a. — First heat 
the steel to a red heat; let it lie until 
nearly black hot, then throw into soap- 
suds. Steel treated in this way can be 
annealed softer than by putting it into 
the ashes of a forsre. 

b. — It is now recommended as a good 
method of annealing steel to let it remain 



[249] 



(Brkzing) 



(Brazing) 



in the fire until red hot, as it heats more 
evenly, then take it from the fire and 
carry it to some dark place, allowing it 
to cool in the air until the dull red is no 
longer obvious in the dark, and finally 
cooling it off in hot water. 

BRAZING 

1. — If gas can be procured, it makes by 
far the best brazing heat, is clean, and 
in using it one has the advantage of b^- 
ing able to place his work to the best 
advantage and to be able to see exactly 
what he is doing during the brazing proc- 
ess. Gasoline forges are about half way 
between gas and coal forges. The great- 
est difficulty with most gasoline forges 
is that they do not give enough heat for 
good-sized jobs. If neither gas nor gaso- 
line are available, then the coal forge must 
be used ; but in doing any kind of brazing, 
only good clean coal can be used, and coke 
or charcoal if possible. For cast-iron braz- 
ing the coal must be practically free of 
sulphur. Malleable iron is not so diffi- 
cult to braze, and almost any means of 
heating may be used, and an ordinary flux 
(borax, boric acid, or anything of that 
nature) will cause the brass to run over 
it like water. 

Malleable iron, steel, or common iron 
brazing is usually successful, but cast 
iron is more difficult. The principal dif- 
ference in brazing cast iron is that a spe- 
cial flux must be used, and a greater heat 
and a longer time are required. The fol- 
lowing flux is recommended : Boric acid, 
1 lb. ; purverized chlorate of potash, 4 
oz. ; carbonate of iron, 3 oz. Mix this 
thoroughly, rolling out all the lumps, and 
then add 2 lbs. of graulated yellow brass 
spelter. This flux must be kept perfectly 
dry. A big fruit jar with the top screwed 
on tight may be used, and only a little 
taken out as needed. To use this, arrange 
the pieces of cast iron to be brazed in such 
a way that they will not jar out of line 
during the brazing, and the break so that 
the brass and flux has a chance to flow 
down through it. Let the heat come from 
below, no matter what kind of forge is 
used. If using gas, throw the blast so that 
the flame will deflect upward. Heat the 
piece to a bright cherry red before apply- 
ing the mixture. Then, using an iron rod, 
flattened on the end and heated red, apply 
the flux and brass, rubbina: it along the 
break and working it in lightly, gradually 
raising the heat till the piece is nearly 
white. ^ Keep applying the mixture for 
some time after it has begun to flow 
nicely, and when you are sure that the 
flux has flowed all through the break, 
shut off the fire and let it cool down 



slowly. Do not hurry the heat, brazing, 
or cooling. If you have taken care that 
the break was clean and free from grease 
in the first place, and have followed 
directions faithfully, you wiU be aston- 
ished at the strength of the brazed joint. 
It will not break in the same place again, 
but will break either some distance away 
or across the first fracture. You cannot 
tear apart a good cast-iron braze. In 
trying this flux for the first time, ao 
not use too small a piece, but take a 
cast-iron bar, say 1 x 1 x 12 in., break 
in two in the middle, and experiment on 
that till you get used to the right heat 
and the action of the flux. After thor- 
oughly testing out this you may begin on 
smaller articles, but remember that on 
very small pieces fire-brick or clay must 
be built up around them in order to hold 
in the heat, as a small piece nasn't boay 
enough itself to properly fuse the flux'. 
This flux can be also used for welding 
and makes an unusually good compound. 
Any first-class druggist can supply the 
ingredients, and if no spelter can be ob- 
tained, chop up some soft brass rod, sheet 
or scrap, and mix in ; but remember, do 
not apply flux till your iron is at least 
cherry red ; the hotter the better, just so 
the iron doesn't melt. For ordinary braz- 
ing, such as bicycle frames and the like 
the following flux is recommended : 
Boiling water, 1 pt. ; borax, 1 pt. Let 
this dissolve thoroughly ; then add 2 pt. of 
boric acid. No care need be taken of this 
flux other than to keep the dirt out of it. 
When using it dry, add a little water and 
paint the article wherever brass is wanted 
to flow. This should be done before heat- 
ing, after heating more flux and brass is 
applied. Brass will follow this flux "up- 
hill" for an inch or so. This flux, how- 
ever, has no effect whatever on cast iron. 
2. — Probably for some kinds of work 
bora.: will never be improved upon for a 
flux, but for some other varieties of 
brazing borax does not completely fill the 
bill — as, for example, when brazing work 
which must be filed and cannot be ground. 
Then the borax will leave a very hard 
skin, which destroys many a file before 
it is fully removed. For this kind of 
work some mechanics like to use boracic 
acid, putting it on with a brush or a 
swab. The hard skin is thinner, and 
comes off easier when the acid solution is 
used, but a writer in the Tradesman is 
ot opinion that the difference lies mostly 
in the fact that not so much of the flux 
is used when the solution is employed. 
The usual way is to pound up a lot of 
lump borax in a lead-melter's ladle or 
the hollow of a blacksmith's sow. Some 



[250] 



(Casehardening) 



( Casehardemng ) 



of this (usually very coarse) powder is 
placed on the work with a bit of flat 
iron. Too much borax for the purpose is 
necessarily used in this manner, and the 
excess goes to make up the hard skin 
which "does for" the files. When the 
acid is used the same effect is secured 
as when the solid borax is applied, but 
not one-tenth the amount is used, and 
that is applied just where it is needed. 
If, for any reason, the manager insists 
upon a solid borax being used, make that 
official secure a coffee mill (one of the 
old-fashioned cheap ones will answer per- 
fectly) and have all the borax ground 
very fine. Then a little of the dust pow- 
der can be rubbed or dusted on where the 
joint is to be made, and the braze made 
without having a lot of oxide and slag 
piled up around the work. 

Aluminum 

Aluminum bronze will braze as well as 
any other metal by using 14 brass solder 
(copper 50%, zinc 50%), and % borax. 

Steel 

The following solder will braze steel, 
and may be found very useful in case of 
a valve stem or other light portion break- 
ing when it is important that the engine 
should continue to work for some time 
longer : Silver, 19 parts ; copper, 1 part ; 
brass, 2 parts. If practicable, charcoal 
dust should be strewed over the melted 
metal of the crucible. 

OASEHARDENING 

1. — A reliable method is to place the 
pieces to be hardened in an iron box made 
airtight by having all its seams covered 
well with fireclay, filling the box in with 
bone dust closely packed around the ar- 
ticles, or (what is better) with leather 
and hoofs cut into pieces about an inch 
in size, adding thin layers of salt in the 
proportion of about 4 lb. salt to 20 lb. 
of leather and 15 lb. of hoofs. In pack- 
ing the articles in the box, be careful to 
so place them that when the hoofs, 
leather, etc., are burned away, and the 
pieces of iron in the box receive the 
weight of those above them, they will not 
be likely to bend from the pressure. 
When the articles are packed and the box 
ready to be closed with the lid, pour into 
it 1 gal. of urine to the above quantities 
of leather, etc. ; then fasten down the lid 
and seal the seams outside well with 
clay. The box is then placed in a fur- 
nace and allowed to remain there for 
about twelve hours, when the articles are 
taken out and quickly immersed in water, 
care being taken to put them in the water 



e:adways to avoid warping them. Articles 
to be casehardened in the above manner 
should have pieces of sheet iron fitted in 
them in all parts where they are required 
to fit will and are difficult to bend when 
cold. Suppose, for instance, it is a quad- 
rant for a link motion : fit into the slot 
where the die works a piece of sheet iron 
(say ^ in. thick) at each end of the slot, 
and two other pieces at equidistant places 
in the slot, leaving on the pieces a pro- 
tection to prevent them from falling 
through the slot. In packing the quad- 
rant in the box, place it so that the sheet 
iron pieces will have their projections 
uppermost ; then in taking the quadrant 
out of the box, handle it carefully, and 
the pieces of iron will remain where they 
weie placed and prevent the quadrant 
from warping in cooling or while in the 
box, from the pressure of the pieces of 
work placed above it. It is obvious from 
wh?t has been already said that the 
heavier pieces of work should be placed 
in the bottom of the box. 

2. — Small Articles. — Take a length of 
gas pipe of from 6 to 12 in. and of suitable 
diameter, screw on thimble caps, and 
pack the screws in them with bone dusi,. 
or with equal parts of charcoal dust and 
unslaked lime ; heat to a red for 2 hours, 
then chill in cold water. A charcoal or 
:i coke fire is best ; anthracite will do, 
but bitumous coal is objectionable. 

rl. — Sal soda, 27 parts; lampblack, 24 
parts ; sodium chloride, 6 parts ; black 
oxide manganese, 1% parts. 

4. — Take some good charcoal (from 
oak the best) ; also some marble (car- 
bonate of lime). Mix together, the mar- 
ble having been broken small. Then lay 
the tool or other piece to be casehardened 
in this compound, in a covered box, and 
subject it to good and continuous heat. 
Result: a deep penetration of the carbon 
into the iron, and therefore a coating of 
steel. In other words, the outer cuticle 
has been converted into steel by the proc- 
ess of cementation. 

5. — A mixture said to be very effica- 
cious for casehardening iron consists of 
16 parts of lampblack, 18 parts sal soda,. 
4 parts muriate of soda, 1 part black 
oxide of manganese. 

Iron 

Prussiate of Potash Process. — 1. — 
Crush the potash to a powder, being care- 
ful that there are no lumps left in it, 
then heat the iron as hot as possible with- 
out causing it to scale ; and with a piece 
of rod iron, spoon-shaped at the end, 
apply the prussiate of potash to the sur- 
face of the iron, rub it with the spoon 



[251] 



(Hardening) 



(Tempering) 



end of the rod until it fuses and runs all 
ver the article, which must then be placed 
in the fire again and slightly reheated, and 
then plunged into water, observing the 
rules given for immersing steel so as not 
to warp the article. 

2. — Powder the prussiate of potash and 
spread upon the surface of the piece of 
iron to be hardened, after the iron is 
heated to a bright red. It almost in- 
stantly fluxes or flows over the surface, 
and when the iron is cooled to a dull red 
it is plunged into cold water. Some pre- 
fer a mixture of prussiate of potash, 3 
parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; or prus 
siate, 1 part ; sal ammoniac, 2 parts, and 
finely powdered bone dust (unburned), 
2 parts. The application is the same in 
each case. Proper casehardening, when 
a deep coating of steel is desired, is done 
by packing the article to be hardened in 
an iron box with horn, hoof, bone dust, 
shreds of leather or raw hide, or either 
of these, and heated to a red heat, for 
from 1 to 3 hours, then plunged in water. 

HARDENING 
Copper 

1. — Mix thoroughly when in a molten 
condition with from 3 to 5% of man- 
ganese oxide. 

2. — Copper treated as follows becomes 
harder and tougher than commercial hard 
copper : Take 2 lb. of alum and 8 oz. of 
arsenic, and mix well, 40 lb. of copper 
is to be used with this quantity of alum 
and arsenic. When the copper is thor- 
oughly melted the alum and arsenic are 
poured in the crucible, and mixed well 
with the melted copper. The copper is 
then poured, and allowed to cool grad- 
ually. 

Iron 

Cast. — 1. — Salt, % pt. ; saltpeter, 14 
lb. ; prussiate of potash, % lb. ; cyanide 
of potash, 1/4 lb. ; soft water, 5 gal. Heat 
the iron to a cherry red, dip in the mix- 
ture. If not hard enough repeat the proc- 
ess. 

2. — 1 lb. of strong sulphuric acid is 
mixed with 1% gal. water and 1 oz. of 
nitric acid. Heat the iron in a clean 
fire to a cherry red, and plunge into the 
mixture, 

3. — For cooling and hardening cast 
iron: To 6Q 1. of water add 2.5 1. of 
vinegar, 3 kgm. of common salt and 0.25 
kgm. of hydrochloric acid. 

Steel 

1. — A new process of hardening steel is 
to coat the metal with a mixture of whit- 
ing and varnish, heat to a cherry red. 



and to then dip for a few seconds in 
acidulated water. The steel is then 
dipped in rape oil for a slightly longer 
time, and is finally laid in a cooling bath 
of rock oil or a mixture of water and 
whiting. By dipping the steel first in the 
water, the heat is drawn away from the 
outer layer, which thus becomes hard. 
Dipping it in the rape oil retards the 
cooling of the interior of the metal, and 
obviates the risk of cracks appearing. 

2. — To 1 lb. of prussiate potash add 3 
lb. common salt, 2 oz. borax, and 2 oz. 
cyanide potash. Place the same in a 
crucible and place the same over a fire ; 
when hot put the steel in the mixture 
and there let it remain until hot, after 
which immediately plunge it in water 
until cool. This prevents the steel from 
cracking or warping, and will give per- 
fect satisfaction. 

SOFTENING STEED 

1. — Place a quantity of newly burnt 
lime in a damp place, where it will fall 
in the form of flour ; put it in an iron 
box. Heat the articles to dull red ; clean 
off all scale, and put in lime, and com 
pletely cover with lime ; cover box over 
with iron lid and leave until cold. The 
more lime and larger the box the better. 
Keep airtight if possible. 

2. — One tablespoonful each of hydro- 
chloric acid and saltpeter to 1 gal. of 
water. Heat the steel and cool in it ; then 
heat to soften by letting cool. Cast steel 
thus treated will weld with sand. 

TEMPERING 
Steel 

1. — In judging the proper temperature 
and corresponding hardness, the follow- 
ing table serves admirably. It is ofter 
difficult to heat a piece of steel uniformly, 
consequently molten metallic mixtures are 
employed, chiefly made up of tin and lead ; 
the bright hardened steel is kept in thps^ 
molten mixtures until it has assumed the 
temperature of the bath. The tabulated 
form on the following page exhibits the 
composition of the metallic baths which 
have been found to be the best for tem- 
pering cutlery. 

2. — (a) Use animal charcoal produced 
by charring horn, 24 parts ; horn filings, 
4 parts ; glue, 6 parts ; potassium nitrate, 
9.5 parts; common salt, 55 parts, (b) 
Potassium bicyanide, 1 part ; purified salt- 
peter, 1 part ; burnt and powdered cattle 
hoofs, 1 part ; gum arable, 1-30 part ; 
aloes, 1-30 part ; common salt, 0.5 part 
Mix a and b well together after being well 
pulverized, strew this upon steel when red 
hot and upop wrought iron when white 



[252] 



(Tempering) 



(Tempering) 



Composition 
of metallic 

mixtures. Melting. Colors. 

Lead. Tin. point. 

Lancets 7 4 220° Hardly pale yellow 

Razors 8 4 228° Pale yellow to straw yel. 

Penknives 81/^ 4 232° Straw yellow 

Pairs of scissors .14 4 254° Brown 

Clasp knives, joiners' and carpenters' 

tools 19 4 265° Purplish colored 

Swords, cutlasses, watch springs 48 4 288° Bright blue 

Stilettos, boring tools and fine saws.... 50 2 292° Deep blue 

Ordinary saws Boil'g linseed oil 316° Blackish blue 



hot, and allow it to burn in, after which 
cool as usual. 

3. — Cast Steel. — Dissolve a small quan- 
tity of sal ammoniac in water, make the 
metal red, drop it into the mixture lor a 
second or two, and take it out, leaving 
enough heat in the metal to draw it back 
a bit. If left till cold, the steel will be a 
great deal too hard. 

Cold Chisels. — Heat the chisel at a low 
heat, so as not to raise a scale. Dip in a 
brine of clear salt and water. About 1 qt. 
of salt to 10 qt. of water is the right pro- 
portion. Leave heat enough in the tool to 
run the temper down to a required hard- 
ness, which is shown by the pigeon blue 
color. Take care to make the chisel stout 
enough that it won't spring in the using. 

Drill. — 1. — A drill heated to a low red, 
and plunged in a strong solution of chlo- 
ride of zinc, will drill glass. 

2. — Heat the drill and rub in cyanide 
of potassium. The drill should be hot 
enough to melt the potassium. Heat again 
to a dark cherry red, and cool it in a very 
strong brine made with warm, soft water. 
Do not draw the temper. The drill will 
look white, but be hard and tough. 

Gun Springs. — To temper gun springs, 
heat them evenly to a low red heat in a 
charcoal fire, and quench them in water 
with the cold chill off, keeping them im- 
mersed until reduced to the temperature 
of the water. Place an iron pan contain- 
ing lard oil and tallow, in about equal 
quantities, over a fire, and place the 
springs therein, and heat the pan until its 
contents take fire ; then hold the springs 
in the flames, turning them over and over 
and dipping them occasionally in the oil 
to keep them blazing ; when the oil adher- 
ing to them blazes freely when they are 
removed from the flames, place them aside 
to cool off. 

Knife Blades. — Be careful about heat- 
ing, otherwise the blade will be warped 
out of shape. When the blade is heated 
evenly, plunge perpendicularly in a bath 



of raw linseed oil. The temper should be 
drawn on a hot iron. The blades may be 
heated and hardened between two straight 
pieces of iron. 

Liquid for Tempering. — 1. — Saltpeter, 
1 oz. ; alum, pulverized, 2 teaspoonfuls ; 
salt, 1 teacup ; soft water, 2 gal. ; never 
heat over a cherry red nor draw any tem- 
per. 

2. — Water, 7% gal. ; saltpeter, 5 oz. ; 
sal ammonaic, 5 oz. ; alum, 5 oz. Draw 
to temper. 

3. — Water, 2 gal. ; saltpeter, 2 oz. ; 
alum, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac (pulverized), 1 
oz. ; salt, iy2 lb. Heat to a cherry red, 
plunge in, draw no temper. 

4. — Water, 2 gal. ; saltpeter, % oz. ; 
pulverized borax, i^ oz. ; white vitriol, 1 
oz. ; salt, 1^4 Pt. 

5. — Put 1/^ oz. of corrosive sublimate in 
3 qt. of soft water and add 1 handful of 
common salt. Dissolve, and it is ready 
for use. This gives toughness and hard- 
ness of steel. It is a dangerous poison. 

Springs, To Temper. — 1. — Tempering of 
coiled springs requires must judgment, 
based upon experience with the particular 
kind of spring that you wish to temper. 
A coiled spring does not give the faintest 
idea of its form, size, length, thickness, 
kind of steel, or whether it is a clock 
spring or car spring, all of which must 
be considered in the method of treatment. 
As a general rule, springs that are slender 
and liable to lose shape in a common fire 
should be heated in an oven or mufile and 
hardened in water or oil. The temper 
should be drawn in boiling linseed oil. 
Springs that have stiffness, like car 
springs, may be heated in a covered forge 
fire to good advantage and hardened in 
lard oil. The temper can be drawn by 
burning off. 

2. — Heat to an even red heat, rather 
low, to prevent cracking; quench in luke- 
warm water. Place in ladle with enough 
tallow to cover it ; heat until tallow burns 
with a large flame extending beyond ladle, 



[253] 



(Welding) 



(Welding) 



then set the ladle aside and allow it to 
cool. 

3. — Revolver Springs. — Heat the spring 
to a cherry red and plunge in linseed oil. 
To draw the temper to the desired degree, 
hold the spring over the fire, and allow the 
oil to burn away, take away from the fire, 
put on more oil, and let it burn away. 
Burn the oil off three times and plunge in 
the oil again. The spring is then ready 
for use. Do not overheat the steel. Test 
the temper frequently with a file. 

Taps. — Bear in mind that a tap is 
simply a series of cutters on a bar ; hence 
the cutting parts must be uniformly hard 
enough to cut, and the base soft as pos- 
sible to insure durability. This can be 
best accomplished by dipping at as low a 
heat as possible and making the outside 
hard, while the inside will be compara- 
tively soft when rubbed off ready for tem- 
pering. Heat a heavy ring (a broken pul- 
ley hub is as good as anything), which 
have on side of your fire for use while 
hardening taps, and also a heavy pair of 
tongs, made hot in the same way. Take 
the lever end of the tap with the hot 
tongs, and insert the tap in the center of 
the hot ring, but do not let it touch the 
sides. It is better to keep turning it 
round. If the temper draws too fast, 
where held by the tongs, cool it off, move 
backward and forward until the right 
color is attained. This, too, depends on 
quality of steel and the size and make of 
the tap, and lastly the purpose for which 
it is intended. 

WELDING 
Directions 

The great secret of welding is to have 
a clean fire, then heat the iron and "strike 
while the iron is hot." Make the fire of 
blacksmiths' coal which has been caked 
(coke). If the work is small have only a 
little fire. As the weld requires consider- 
able pounding, plenty of stock should be 
left by using generous laps. Be sure the 
laps fit well before welding. When the 
iron gets from a red to a white heat sand 
the iron without removing from the fire 
and watch the iron carefully. When it 
sparks freely and has a glazed appear- 
ance, remove from the fire, lay quickly, 
after a shake to remove the oxide, and 
pound the lap well until the iron becomes 
too cold to work. 

Composition for. — 1. — To 20 parts of 
iron filings add 10 parts of borax and 1% 
part sal ammoniac and 1 part of balsam 
of copaiba or other resinous oil. Mix 
well, heated and purverized. The surfaces 
to be united are powdered with this mix- 
ture; after which place the article in the 



fire and let it come to a cherry-red heat ; 
when the composition melts, take the por- 
tions to be welded from the fire and join 
together. This composition is used in 
Germany with great success. 

2. — Another composition for welding 
consists of 30 parts of borax, 4 parts of 
sal ammoniac and 4 parts of cyanide of 
potash. Dissolve in water and then evap- 
orate the water at a low temperature. 

Copper. — Prepare a mixture of 358 
parts soda phosphate, 124 parts boracic 
acid ; apply the powder when the metal 
is at a dull red heat ; it is then brought 
to a cherry red and at once hammered. 
As the metal is apt to soften when ex- 
posed to a high degree of heat, a wooden 
hammer is recommended. Remove all 
carbonaceous matter from the surfaces 
to be joined, as the success of the opera- 
tion depends on the formation of a fusible 
phosphate of copper. The prosphate of 
copper dissolves a thin film of oxide on 
the surfaces of the metal, keeping them 
clean and in condition to weld. 

Fluxes. — 1. — A welding material com- 
posed of 25 parts of borax, a paper or 
metallic support and 60 parts metallic fil- 
ings of the same nature as the metals to 
be welded, and made by first melting the 
borax ; second, immersing the support in 
the fused borax ; third, smoothing the 
same by passing it through pressure roll- 
ers ; fourth, sprinkling its two faces with 
the metal filings ; fifth, heating the sheet 
in an oven ; sixth, passing through pres- 
sure rollers. 

2. — A welding material composed of 
borax and metallic filings of the same na- 
ture as the metals to be welded, mixed 
with the fused borax, and in the propor- 
tions substantially as set forth, and then 
rolled out into sheets of about 1-16 in. 
thick. 

3. — The welding sheets coated with a 
layer of gum lac or other appropriate 
varnish. 

4. — The following compound has been 
frequently offered as a trade secret : Take 
copperas, 2 oz. ; saltpeter, 1 oz. ; common 
salt, 6 oz. ; black oxide of manganese, 1 
oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. Pulverize 
these ingredients and mix with them 3 
lbs. nice welding sand. 

Lead. — An ingenious method of weldin<? 
lead has been devised by M. Blondel. The 
surfaces to be joined are carefully cleaned 
and between them is placed a thin layer of 
lead amalgam. On passing an ordinary 
soldering iron along the line of junction, 
the mercury of the amalgam is vaporized, 
and the lead, set free in an exceedingly 
finely divided state, fuses and unites the, 
two surfaces together. 



[254] 



(Welding) 



(Welding) 



Powder. — Belgian Welding Powder. — 
1. — Iron filings, 800 parts ; borax, 400 
parts ; balsam of copaiba or other resinous 
oil, 40 parts ; sal ammoniac, 60 parts. 
Mix, heat and pulverize finely. Powder 
the surfaces to be welded, bring to a 
cherry-red heat, at which the powder 
melts ; take from the fire and join. 

2. — Calcine and pulverize together 50 
parts iron or steel filings, 5 parts sal 
ammoniac, 3 parts borax, 2% parts bal- 
sam copaiba. Heat one of the pieces to be 
welded red, carefully clean off scale, 
spread the powder upon it ; apply the 
other piece at a white heat and weld with 
a hammer. Used for welding iron and 
steel, or both, together. . 

Iron and Steel Together. — 1. — To weld 
cast steel with cast steel or with iron, a 
welding powder has to be made use of, if 
a secure seam is desired, since cast steel 
cannot stand sparkling heat. An excel- 
lent welding powder is produced as fol- 
lows : In an unglazed iron vessel or 
crucible fuse borax in an annealing fur- 
nace until the liquid appears entirely dark 
green. Test the molten mass by immers- 
ing a wire or piece of iron, to which a 
sample will cling. First the molten mass 
is pale yellow, but it gradually turns 
darker. As soon as the sample taken with 
the iron rod, which immediately cools into 
a hard mass, acquires a dark green or 
black color, the moment has arrived to 
remove the vessel from the fire in order to 
pour the contents into another cold, but 
dry, receptable. After complete cooling, 
the glass-like dark mass is crushed in a 
mortar into a coarse powder. The powder 
is pale greenish yellow, and is now mixed 
with an equal volume of steel filings. In 
storing the welding powder it must occupy 
a dry place to prevent the filings from 
rusting. 

2. — Heat the steel to cherry red (after 
it is shaped to correspond to the surface 
of the cast iron to which it is to be 
joined). Apply borax to the surfaces to 
be welded. Heat the parts to a welding 
heat. Apply strong pressure, without im- 
mersing, which will securely weld the steel 
and iron. 



3. — Ten parts borax, 1 part sal ammo- 
niac ; pulverize together thoroughly, with 
which sprinkle the parts to be welded. 

4. — To make composition used in weld- 
ing cast steel, take of borax 10 parts ; sal 
ammoniac, 1 part ; grind or pound roughly 
together ; then fuse in a metal pot over 
a clear fire, continuing the heat until all 
spume has disappeared from the surface. 
When the liquid appears clear, the compo- 
sition is ready to be poured out to cool 
and concrete. To prepare it for use it is 
ground to a fine powder. The steel to be 
welded is raised to a bright yellow heat, 
and then dipped into this welding powder ; 
it is then placed in the fire again, and 
when it attains the same heat as before 
it is ready to be placed under the ham- 
mer. 

5. — Welding Cast Steel Without Borax. 
— Copperas, 4 parts ; saltpeter, 2 parts ; 
prussiate of potash, 2 parts ; black oxide 
of magnesia, 2 parts ; common salt, 12 
parts ; all pulverized. Mix with good 
welding sand, 48 parts, and use precisely 
the same as you would sand. 

6. — Powder to weld wrought iron at 
pale-red heat with wrought iron : Borax, 
1 part (by weight) ; sal ammoniac, ^ 
part; water, i^ part. These ingredients 
are boiled with constant stirring until the 
mass is stiff; then it is allowed to harden 
over the fire. Upon cooling the mass is 
rubbed up into a powder and mixed with 
one-third wrought-iron filings free from 
rust. When the iron has reached red 
heat this powder is sprinkled on the parts 
to be welded, and after it has liquefied a 
few blows are sufficient to unite the 
pieces. 

7. — Welding powder to weld steel on 
wrought iron at pale-red heat : Borax, 3 
parts ; potassium cyanide, 2 parts ; Berlin 
blue, 1-100 part. These substances are 
powdered well, moistened with water ; 
next they are boiled with constant stirring 
until stiff ; then dry over a fire. Upon 
cooling the mass is finely pulverized and 
mixed with 1 part of wrought-iron filings 
free from rust. This powder is sprinkled 
repeatedly upon the hot pieces, and after 
it has burned in the welding is taken in 
hand. 



[255] 



CHAPTER VIII. 



LUBRICANTS 



General Information on Lubricants 

The general experience gained of vari- 
ous oils used for lubricating tends to the 
following results: 

1. — A mineral oil flashing below 300° 
F., 149° C, is unsafe, on account of caus- 
ing fire. 

2. — A mineral oil evaporating more 
than 5% in 10 hours at 140° F., 60° C, 
is inadmissible, as the evaporation creates 
a vicious residue, or leaves the bearing 
dry. 

3. — The most fluid oil that will remain 
in its place, fulfilling other conditions, is 
the best for all light bearings at high 
speeds. 

4. — The best oil is that which has the 
greatest adhesion to metallic surfaces and 
the least cohesion in its own particles. 
In this respect, fine mineral oils are first, 
sperm oil second, neatsfoot oil third, lard 
oil fourth. 

5. — Consequently, the finest mineral 
oils are best for light bearings and high 
velocities. 

6. — The best animal oil to give body 
to fine mineral oils is sperm oil. 

7. — Lard and neatsfoot oils may replace 
sperm oil when greater tenacity is re- 
quired. 

8. — The best mineral oil for cylinders 
is one having sp. gr. 0.893 at 60° F., 
15%° C. ; evaporating point, 550° F., 
288° C, and flashing point, 680° F., 
360° C. 

9. — The best mineral oil for heavy ma- 
chinery has sp. gr. 0.880 at 60° F., 15y2° 
G. ; evaporating point, 443° F., 229° C, 
and flashing point, 518° F., 269° C. 

10. — The best mineral oil for light 
bearings and high velocities has sp. gr. 
0.871 at 60° F., 151/2° C. ; evaporating 
point, 424° F., 218° O., and flashing point 
505° F., 262° C. 

11. — Mineral oils alone are not suited 
for the heaviest machinery, on account 
of want of body and higher degree of in- 
flammability. 

12. — Well purified animal oils are ap- 
plicable to the very heavy machinery. 

13. — Olive oil is foremost among vege- 
table oils, as it can be purified without 
the aid of mineral acids. 

14. — The other vegetable oils admis- 



sible, but far inferior, stated in their order 
of merit, are gingelly, ground nut, colza 
and cotton-seed oils. 

15. — No oil is admissible which has 
been purified by means of mineral acids. 

16. — In the case of all lubricants it is 
necessary to remember that a given recipe 
is suitable for a certain climate only, and 
must be correspondingly modified to suit 
warmer or colder districts. 

Cleaning Lubricating Oil. — Agitate it 
with a small percentage of oil of vitriol, 
and then thoroughly wash it with water 
by agitation ; siphon off the oil and let 
stand over quicklime. To filter oil from 
mechanically contained impurities, fit a 
small cork, cut star-shaped, in the angle 
of a funnel, so that it will not impede 
the passage of liquids, and cover this 
loosely with cotton wool (raw cotton). 
If properly arranged, the oil will pass 
through, leaving the impurities in the 
cotton. 

Purifying Lubricating Oil. — The fol- 
lowing is a good method of purifying lu- 
bricating oil : A tub holding 63 qt. has 
a tap inserted close to the bottom and 
another about 4 in. higher. In this re- 
ceptacle are placed 7 qt. of boiling water, 
3% oz. of carbonate of soda, 314 oz. of 
chloride of calcium, and 9 oz. of common 
salt. When all these are in solution, 45 
qt. of the oil to be purified are let in, 
and well stirred for 5 or 10 minutes ; the 
whole is then left for a week in a warm 
place, at the expiration of wnich time 
the clear, pure oil can be drawn off 
through the upper tap without disturbing 
the bottom one. 

Testing Lubricating Oil. — To test lubri- 
cating oil for acid, dissolve a crystallized 
piece of carbonate of soda, about as large 
as a walnut, in an equal bulk of water, 
and place the solution in a flask with 
some of the oil. If, on settling, after 
thorough agitation, a large quantity of 
precipitate forms, the oil should be re- 
jected as impure. 

Solid Lubricants 

Caoutchouc Lubricants. — 1. — Caout- 
chouc grease. — Train oil, 200 parts ; 
caoutchouc, 20 parts. The train oil is 
heated in a pan until it begins to de- 
compose, this condition being revealed by 



[257] 



(Solid Lubricants) 



(Solid Lubricants) 



an ebullition resembling boilmg, and by 
the evolution of a disagreeable smell, the 
caoutchouc, cut into small pieces, being 
introduced by degrees, and the entire mass 
vigorously stirred after each addition. J^ or 
ordinary purposes, this grease is inap- 
plicable, owing to the high price of caout- 
chouc, the more so because lubricants of 
at least equal efficiency can be preQared 
at a far cheaper cost. 

2. — Caoutchouc and Fat Grease. — 
Caoutchouc, 5 parts ; palm oil, 100 parts ; 
rape oil, 100 parts ; tallow, 50 parts. The 
caoutchouc is dissolved in the rape oil 
by the aid of a high temperature, and 
the filtered solution is incorporated with 
the solid fats. It has been found by ex- 
periment that actual filtration of the mass 
is impracticable, it being difficult to strain 
even through a linen cloth. 

Lead Soap Lubricants.— The lead salts 
possess the property of saponifying fats 
or fatty oils to form fairly solid com- 
pounds, known as lead soaps, which are 
hard in the cold, and smeary at the or- 
dinary temperature, but attain the neces- 
sary degree of fluidity when warmed by 
friction. This latter property is highly 
important in the case of the axles of ve- 
hicles, since it reduces the loss of grease, 
"by dropping to a minimum. For the 
preparation of these lubricants it is, first 
of all, necessary to make a solution of 
basic lead acetate, or sugar of lead, which 
is then incorporated with a suitable pro- 
portion of fat. The solution is prepared 
from sugar of lead, 10 parts ; litharge, 10 
parts; water, 110 parts. Boil 1^^ to 2 
hours, stirring repeatedly, at the end of 
which time the mass is left to rest, and the 
clear liquid drawn off. The latter is made 
up to 100 parts, by weight, by the addi- 
tion of water, and after being warmed to 
about 120 to 140° F., is mixed with com- 
mon fat (rape oil and pork fat, or neats- 
foot oil), in the following proportions: 
Sugar of lead, 100 parts; rape oil, 80 
parts; pork fat, 80 parts. The resulting 
preparation should be of a uniform gray 
color, and when melted should set again 
at 85 to 105° F. 

Naphthalene Grease. — Naphthalene, 100 
parts; rape oil, 50 to 100 parts. The 
naphthalene — a crystalline hydrocarbon 
recovered from coal tar — is melted, and 
stirred up with a larger or smaller quan- 
tity of rape oil, the product varying in 
consistency between firm, buttery and 
fluid, and forming a useful lubricant. The 
expensive purified naphthalene is not 
meant here, purity not being an essential 
feature for the purpose in view; so that 
the crude article, which is very impure, 



is sufficient. These remarks apply equally 
to paraffine. 

Soap Greases. — The soap greases, prop- 
erly so called, are prepared with ordinary 
soft soap (a compound of potash with 
fatty acids), or from fats and potash, 
these forming the emulsions already re- 
ferred to. Tallow, 420 parts; olive oil, 
360 parts; potash, 60 parts; water, 650 
parts. The potash is dissolved in water, 
the solution heated to boiling, and the 
whole of the fat is added at once, the fire 
being made up so as to keep the whole 
in a liquid state. Boiling is continued, 
with constant stirring, until complete sa- 
ponification is indicated by the thicken- 
ing of the mass and the way in which a 
sample will draw into threads on cooling. 
The resulting product is, in a chemical 
sense, really a dilute solution of potash 
mixed with an excess of fat, and may, 
therefore be regarded as an emulsion lu- 
bricant in the true sense of the term. 

Tallow Lubricants. — Tallow grease is 
always a serviceable article, but^ it is 
somewhat dearer than other lubricants. 
Tallow changes in consistency very con- 
siderably according to the temperature. 
In the height of summer it is on a par 
with soft butter, but perfectly hard and 
friable in very cold weather. 

1. — Booth's Patent Grease. — a. — Re- 
fined tallow, 6 parts ; palm oil, 12 parts ; 
water, 8 parts ; soda, 1 part. 

b. — Refined tallow, 8 parts; palm oil, 
20 parts ; water, 10 parts ; soda, ly^ 
parts. 

For both recipes the tallow is melted 
first, and heated to about 265° F., the 
palm oil being stirred in. The soda is dis- 
solved in water, in a separate vessel, 
either at ordinary temperature or by the 
aid of warmth, and the solution is run, 
in the form of a thin stream, into the 
mixture of tallow and palm oil, which is 
kept constantly stirred the while. After 
the whole of the soda has been added the 
fire is drawn, and the mass is stirred un- 
til it begins to set and to offer consider- 
able resistance to the stirrers. 

2. — Tallow and Neatsfoot-oil Grease. — 
Tallow, 100 parts; neatsfoot oil, 100 
parts. This grease was used for a long 
time on the Wiirttemberg railways; it is 
very thick, and, therefore, specially suit- 
able for summer use; but is rather dear. 
3. — Tallow, Rape-Oil and Soda Greases. 
— a. — Winter Grease. — Tallow, 180 parts ; 
refined rape oil, 120 parts; soda, 20 
parts ; water, 360 parts. 

b. — Spring and Autumn Grease. — Tal- 
low, 230 parts ; refined rape oil, 85 parts ; 
soda, 20 parts ; water, 350 parts. 



[258] 



(Liquid Lubricants) 



(Mineral Lubricating Oils) 



c. — Summer Grease. — Tallow, 260 
parts ; refined rape oil, 55 parts ; soda, 
20 parts; water, 340 parts. 

Liquid Lubricants 

The liquid lubricants possess many im- 
portant advantages over the greases, and, 
in consequence, are often preferred by 
railway companies and machinery mak- 
el-s. Their chief superiority is that they 
do not require such complicated appliances 
(grease boxes) in use, they begin to act 
as soon as they are applied, without need- 
ing the heat generated by friction to make 
them suflSciently fluid ; and, besides, the 
oiling vessels can be of a simple type, 
even on the axles of vehicles. Finally, 
they exhibit the valuable feature of hav- 
ing their consistency less affected by the 
temperature of the air than is the case 
with greases. The best materials for the 
preparation of the liquid lubricants are : 
1, rape and colza oils ; 2, olive oils ; 3, 
rosin oil, either alone or in association 
with lime or certain products of dry dis- 
tillation (paraffine) ; 4, train oil; 5, 
neatsfoot oil and bone oil ; 6, the so-called 
mineral oils (solar oil, coal oil) ; 7, pe- 
troleum and ozokerite ; 8, soap solutions. 

Fat and Rosin Oil. — Rosin oil is mis- 
cible with solid and liquid fats in all pro- 
portions, and the products exhibit proper- 
ties corresponding to those of the compo- 
nents of the mixture. 

1. — Rosin Oil and Train Oil Lubricant. 
— Rosin oil, 100 parts ; refined train oil, 
50 parts. Since this mixture deposits a 
sediment after standing for some time, it 
is important that it should not be used 
as soon as made, but should be stored in 
vats or casks for a while. 

2. — Solar Oil Lubricant. — Solar oil, 30 
parts ; refined rape oil, 20 parts. This lu- 
bricating oil is particularly suitable for 
brass and bronze machine parts, as it 
does not corrode these metals to more 
than an appreciable extent. 

3.— Thick Oil Lubricants.— a.— For 
winter use : Tallow, 35 parts ; rosin oil, 
10 parts ; rape oil or olive oil, 65 parts. 

b. — for summer use : Tallow, 60 parts ; 
rosin oil, 8 parts ; rape oil or olive oil, 
40 parts. 

Paraffine Oil Grease. — 1. — Summer 
grease : Paraffine oil, 10 parts ; refined 
rape oil, 90 parts. 

2. — Winter grease : Paraffine oil, 6 
parts ; refined rape oil, 94 parts. 

It is self-evident that these recipes can 
also be modified to furnish greases suit- 
able for medium temperatures — i.e., spring 
and autumn use — all that is necessary 
being to increase or diminish the propor- 
tion of rape oil accordingly. These par- 



affine-oil greases, which have hitherto 
been insufficiently appreciated, form ex- 
cellent lubricants both for axles and ma- 
chinery, and can be produced cheaply 
wherever paraffine oil is easily obtainable. 
In addition to perfect lubrication . they 
have the advantage of not corroding the 
machine parts. 

3. — Paraffine and Vaseline Grease. — 
Pure white paraffine and vaseline can be 
mixed in any proportion by melting them 
together, and furnish greases ranging 
in consistency from that of soft butter 
to thick salve, by varying the quantities. 
Being perfectly free from acid, they are 
admirably suited for fine machinery and 
axles, whether running at high or low 
speed. 

Mineral Lubricating Oils 

1. — Thick Mineral Lubricating Oils 
(Greases). — These oils are prepared by 
boiling together milk of lime, some vege- 
table oil and a mineral oil until a homo- 
geneous salve-like mass is obtained. A 
lime soap is formed, which dissolves in 
the oils ; and the larger the quantity of 
this soap the higher the melting point of 
the grease. On account of this high melt- 
ing point, and the viscosity of the mass 
when melted, these greases are specially 
suitable for high-pressure steam engines. 

a. — Mineral oil, 100 parts; linseed oil, 
30 parts ; ozokerite oil, 20 parts ; lime, 
9 parts. 

b. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; linseed oil, 
30 parts ; ozokerite oil, 20 parts ; lime, 5 
parts ; magnesia, 4 parts. 

c. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; linseed oil, 
25 parts ; ozokerite oil, 35 parts ; lime, 10 
parts. 

d. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rape oil, 40 
parts ; cocoanut oil, 10 parts ; lime, 10 
parts. 

e. — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rosin oil, 
100 parts; rape oil, 50 parts; linseed oil, 
75 parts ; lime, 25 parts. 

f . — Mineral oil, 100 parts ; rape oil, 30 
parts; ozokerite oil, 20 parts; lime, 15 
parts. 

2. — Lanoline Axle Grease. — a. — Rape 
oil, 10 parts ; quicklime, 5 parts ; water, 
20 parts ; crude vaseline, 500 parts ; crude 
lanoline, 40 parts. 

b. — Linseed oil, 10 parts; quicklime, 5 
parts; water, 20 parts; crude vaseline, 
600 parts ; crude lanoline, 40 parts. 

The last two formulas mentioned above 
are mixed with clay, soapstone or infuso- 
rial earth, in the proportion of 10 to 25% 
of the whole mass. 

3. — Lanoline Lubricant. — In scouring 
sheep wool, a product known as wool fat, 
wool yolk, or suint, is obtained, and this 



[259] 



(Axle Grease) 



(Axle Grease) 



in turn furnishes lanoline, or wool oil. 
Lanoline, when quite pure, is a soft mass 
of fatty character, but is not a fat, and 
therefore never turns rancid, so that it 
forms an excellent lubricant. It is par- 
ticularly adapted for axle grease, only 
the crude lanoline being, of course, used 
for this purpose. The method of prepa- 
ration adopted consists in heating some 
vegetable oil with milk of lime and crude 
vaseline until a homogeneous mass is ob- 
tained, melted lanoline being then added 
in a thin stream, and stirred with the 
rest until the product has attained the 
consistency of soft salve. The mass may 
be stiffened to any desired extent by the 
addition of ground soapstone, clay or in- 
fusorial earth. 

4. — Soap and Vaseline Greases. — 
Crude vaseline, mixed with ordinary or 
rosin soap, furnishes a very good railway 
grease, green to brown in color. Crude 
vaseline, 6 to 8 parts, melted along with 
1 part of tallow and 1 part of colophony, 
iy2 parts of soda lye (20° Be.) being 
poured in as a thin stream, and the whole 
stirred continuously until the mass be- 
gins to get viscous, whereupon it is 
poured into cans, drums, etc., for send- 
ing out. 

LUBRICANTS FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 
Axle Grease 

In making axle grease for cold coun- 
tries, the proportion of train oil must 
be increased to give the grease the neces- 
sary fluidity. The larger the quantity 
of train oil the softer, more buttery, and 
more easily melted the mixture will be. 
The following is a recipe for a thick oil 
grease : 

1, — For use in winter: Tallow, 85 
parts; oil of rosin, 10 parts; olive or 
rape oil, 65 parts. 

2. — For use m summer: Tallow, W 
parts ; oil of rosin, 8 parts ; olive or rape 
oil, 40 parts. 

The blue color is due to the dark violet 
tint of the oil referred to, while the yel- 
low tint is produced by the addition of 
a solution of turmeric root in caustic 
soda. , , 

Asphaltum Axle Grease. — ^Asphaltum, 
32 parts ; black pitch, 8 parts ; petroleum, 
8 parts; litharge, 8 parts; water, 80 
parts. The asphaltum and pitch are first 
melted together in a pan, the petroleum 
being then added until the mass has be- 
come uniformlv fluid. The litharge is 
next added, and finally the water is run 
in, in small quantities, the wnole being 
stirred until perfectly uniform. The as- 



phaltum and pitch give this grease a lus- 
trous black color and a peculiar bitumin- 
ous smell. The fluidity of the mass can 
be increased or diminished by correspond- 
ingly varying the proportion of petro- 
leum. 

Car Axles. — Dark ozokerite, 15 parts; 
heavy petroleum, 3 to 6 parts. Melt to- 
gether at a gentle heat. Suitable also for 
heavy wagons. 

Carriage Axle Greases. — 1. — Tallow, 
500 parts; linseed oil, 500 parts; pine 
rosin, 500 parts ; caustic soda lye, 315 
parts. 

2. — Tallow, 500 parts; linseed oil, 450 
parts ; pine rosin, 500 parts ; caustic soda 
lye, 500 parts. 

' Both preparations, when suitably 
stirred during preparation, form solid 
masses, of the constituency of salve, and 
yellow in color. They are easily dis- 
tributed on the axles, and lubricate well. 
The rosin is melted first, the tallow and 
linseed oil being then added; and when 
these have formed a uniform mixture, the 
caustic soda lye is added by degrees. The 
lye is used moderately strong, and the 
firmness of the grease can be heightened 
by increasing the concentration of the al- 
kaline solution. 

Frazer's Axle Grease. — Composed of 
partially saponified rosin oil, that is a 
rosin soap and rosin oil. In its prepara- 
tion % gal. of No. 1 and 2i^ gal. of No. 
4 rosin oil are saponified with a solution 
of % lb. of sal soda dissolved in 3 pt. 
of water, and 10 lb. of sifted lime. After 
standing for 6 hours or more, this is 
drawn off from the sediment and thor- 
oughly mixed with 1 gal. of No. 1, 3^7^ 
gal. of No. 2, and 4 2-3 gal. of No. 3 
rosin oil. This rosin oil is obtained by 
the destructive distillation of common 
rosin, the products ranging from an ex- 
tremely light to a heavy fluorescent oil, 
or colophonic tar. 

Graphite Axle Grease. — Tallow, 36 
parts; pork fat, 9 parts; palm oil, 9 
parts; graphite, 2 parts. 

Graphite Grease for Quick-Running 
Axles. — Tallow, 100 parts; graphite, lOJ 
parts. This is specially suitable for greas- 
ing the shafts of circular saws, ventilat- 
ing fans, etc., and, indeed, for any axles 
running at high speed under small load. 

Palm Oil Axle Greases for Very Heavy 
Wagons. — 1. — For winter use : Tallow, 
420 parts; palm oil, 840 parts; soda, 140 j 
parts ; water, 4,200 parts. 

2. — For summer use: Tallow. 420 
parts; palm oil. 490 parts; soda, 35 
parts; water, 2,300 parts. The above ar- 
calculated for severe winter weather and 
high summer temperatures. For milder 



1260] 



(Chain Lubricant) 



(Cycle Oils) 



winter climates the proportion of soda 
may be somewhat reduced and the palm 
oil increased 

Belting Grease 

1. — To 100 parts of castor oil add 10 
parts of tallow. Belts lubricated with 
this mixture are made flexible, and the 
friction on the pulleys is increased. 

2.— Linseed oil, 9 parts; litharge, 4 
parts. Boil together, along with water, 
until a sample sets to the consistency of 
plaster, the mixture being then thinned 
down with oil of turpentine while still 

warm. _ ^ . , m 

3 — Driving-Beit Grease. — Linseed oil, 
45 parts; litharge, 20 parts; water, 
20 parts. These three substances are 
boiled together until the mass has as- 
sumed the consistency of plaster, and is 
thinned to about the same degree of flu- 
idity as varnish, by adding oil of turpen- 
tine in the warm. 

Cart Grease 

Palm-Oil Cart Grease.— Palm oil, 210 
parts; tallow, 85 parts; soda lye, b5 
parts; water, 920 parts. The palm oil 
and tallow are melted together, the mix- 
ture rendered uniform by stirring, and 
the soda Ive added. The density of the 
latter should be 20 to 21° Be ; that is 
to say, the Baume eerometer should sink 
into the solution down to the 20 or ^1 
mark on the scale. After the soda lye 
has been stirred in the water is added, 
and the mass is stirred until uniform, 
whereupon it is ladled out into vessels 
to set. 
Chain Lubricant 

A mixture of powdered plumbago and 
glycerine has been warmly recommended 
at various times as a chain lubricant. 
Plumbago, 6 parts, mixed intimately with 
10 parts of petrolatum, also yields a sat- 
isfactory lubricant. 

Clockmakers* Oils 

Mineral Oil for dockmakers' Use.— 
The mineral oil for clock^nakers' use is 
a specially refined heavy tar oil. One 
hundred parts of ordinary heavy tar oil 
are treated with 2 parts of bleaching pow- 
der, well stirred in, and followed by 3 
parts of crude hydrochloric acid. The 
mixture must then be vigorously stirred, 
and set aside for 6 hours. At the end of 
this time the oil is poured off from the 
watery liquid, and repeatedly shaken uo 
with 5 parts of caustic soda lye each 
time. Finally, the refined oil is filtered 
throueh pray blottinsr paper. 

Olive Oil for Clockmakers' Use. — ^To 



prepare this lubricant, an olive oil must 
be taken that has been refined by the 
sulphuric-acid method, very well known, 
and afterward shaken up with about 2% 
of weak lye to insure the complete elim- 
ination of the final traces of free acid. 
The oil and lye are left in contact for 
several days after a thorough shaking 
the oil floating on the surface being then 
drawn off and bleached with spirits, as 
described above. Like all other fine lu- 
bricating oils, the olive oil so treated 
must be filled into small bottles, which 
are then tightly corked, and stored with 
care. 

Cycle Oil 

1. — This is commonly made up of sperm 
oil and vaseline, 3 parts or the former 
to 1 part of the latter, by weight. A 
greater quantity of vaseline could be 
used, and some -mineral oil as a thinning 
agent. 

2. — Cycle-Chain Lubricant. — a. — Melt 
some tallow, then stir in powdered plum- 
bago (graphite or black lead) until it is 
thick enough to set solid when cold. While 
fluid pour it into molds. 

b. — The foregoing recipe applies to 
blocks of hard lubricant that is rubbed 
on the chain. If the chain can be soaked 
and stirred about in the fluid mixture, 
it is much better. 

c. — Mix plumbago and vaseline to a 
stiff consistency. This does not set, but 
is applied with a brush. 

Cylinder Oil 

Filtered cylinder oil, 3 parts ; black cyl- 
inder oil, 2 parts ; thickened rape oil, 1 
part. Heat to 200° F. in a steam-jack- 
eted pan for half an hour, stirring well. 
When settled, it can be run into barrels 
while warm. If desired, half the rape oil 
can be omitted and this quantity of lard 
oil added. What is known as A and B 
blend consists of 9 parts of steam-refined 
cylinder oil, 3 parts of thickened rape oil 
and 3 parts of lard oil. This is A blend. 
The B blend consists of 9, 4 and 4 parts, 
respectively. 

Drill Lubricator 

For drilling wrought iron, use 1% lb. 
of soft soap mixed with 1% gal. of boil- 
ing water. Insures ease in working, and 
clean cutting. 

Gear anr' Pinion Grease 

The Detroit United Railways is using 
on its cars a gear and pinion "dope" 
grease that is giving very satisfactory ser- 
vice. Through its use the cost of lu- 
bricating gears has been reduced 56 to 



[2611 



(Machinery Lubricants) 



(Watch Oils) 



80 cents per 1,000 miles, and the cost 
of lubricating pinions 82 to 40 cents per 
1,000 miles. About 25 lb. of the lubri- 
cant is packed in each gear case. The 
ingredients and the proportions used in 
mixing this dope are as follows : Animal 
fat (tallow and lard), 18%; oleic acid, 
3% ; lime, 3% ; Dixon's best graphite, 
8% ; special paraflSne stock, 48% ; 650 
fire cylinder stock, extremely viscous, 
20%. 

Hemp Ropes 

Cut a quantity of tallow into small 
pieces, and place the latter in a clean 
vessel on a moderate fire. When melted, 
run the liquid fat through a wire sieve 
into another vessel, in which mix, with 
constant stirring, 1-5 part, by weight, of 
hot linseed-oil varnish, taking care that 
it is thoroughly incorporated. To this 
mixture add 1-15 part of vaseline. After 
cooling, this groase is applied by means of 
a wooden spatula on the rope, ntid rubbed 
in with a clean woolen rag. The grease 
should preferably be lukewarm when 
rubbed in. 

Machine Oils and Solid Greases, 
American 

A number of these products have been 
found, on careful examination, to possess 
the following composition : 

1. — Oleic acid, 90 parts ; petroleum, 10 
parts. 

2. — Oleic acid, 100 parts, glycerine, 50 
parts. 

3. — Oleic acid, 100 parts ; guaiacum oil, 
20 parts. 

4. — Glycerine, 100 parts; petroleum, 10 
parts. 

5. — Glycerine, 100 parts ; olive oil, 50 
parts. 

6. — Gamber fat, 100 parts ; coal tar, 
30 parts. 

Machinery Lubricants 

1. — Graphite, 28 parts ; talc, 20 parts ; 
sulphur, 16 parts ; wax or parafl&ne, 16 
parts. 

2. — Graphite, 15 parts ; bone glue, TY2 
parts ; water, 16 parts ; sulphur, 6 parts ; 
wax or paraflBine, 5% parts, A patent 
has been taken out in France for lubri- 
cants compounded in this manner. 

3. — Chard's Preparation for Heavy 
Bearings consists of: Petroleum (gravity 
25° ) , 12 oz. ; caoutchouc, 2 055. ; sulphur 
2 oz. ; plumbago. 4 oz, ; beeswax, 4 oz, ; 
sal soda, 2 oz. The comnosition is stirred 
and hinted to 140° F. for half an hour. 

4. — Booth's. — Soda. ^ lb. ; rape-seed 
oil, 1 gal.; water. 1 gpl.: tallow or palm 
oil, % lb.; mix intimately, heat to boil- 



ing, and continue stirring till cooled down 
to 60 to 70° F. (15y2 to 21° C). 

Piston-rod Grease 

Paraffine, 1 part ; powdered talc, 4 
parts, are stirred together whilst hot, 
wicks are then dipped in the mixture, and 
are afterwards pressed into position in 
the piston-rod gland. This lubricant will 
grease a piston-rod for 8 to 14 days with 
one application. 

Sewing Machine Oil 

1. — A mixture of: Olive oil, 3 parts; 
almond oil, 2 parts; rape oil, 1 part, is 
treated with alcohol as already described. 
This mixed lubricant is fairly fluid, and 
is therefore admirably suited for oiling 
very fine machine parts. 

2. — Best. — Pale oil of almonds, 9 oz. ; 
rectified benzoline, 3 oz. ; foreign oil of 
lavender, 1 oz. Mix and filter. 

3. — Common. — Petroleum, 3 oz. ; pale 
nut oil, 9 oz. ; essential oil of almonds, 40 
to 50 drops. Mix and filter. 

4. — The writer was given a simple rec- 
ipe of 2 parts of sperm oil and 1 part pe- 
troleum. He made a quart of this for 
domestic use, and it answered excellently. 
Through not having great use for it, the 
ouantity made was not finished for about 
12 years, and at the expiration of this 
time the oil was as good as at first, though 
a little darker in color. 

5. — Sperm oil, to which a little ker- 
osene oil has been added, makes a very 
satisfactory lubricant for sewing ma- 
chines and other light machinery. 

6. — Soft paraffine, 1 part; paraffine oil, 
7 parts. Melt the soft paraffine and add 
the oil. Allow to stand for some hours, 
and then pour off the liquid. 

Watch Oils (See also Clockmakers' 
Oils) 

An oil fit to be used as a lubricator 
for fine mechanism should possess the 
following essential qualities: It should 
neither thicken or dry up nor get hard 
at a low temperature, nor should it be 
subject to oxidation. In spite of the vast 
progress natural science has made of late 
years, it has not succeeded in discovering 
an animal or vegetable oil possessing 
these combined properties without previ- 
ous artificial manipulation. Let us men- 
tion a few instances : 

1. — Almond oil has the valuable prop- 
erty of not becoming firm till below 17** 
R., but it oxidizes sooner than any other 
oil. 

2. — PoDDV seed and oil will withstand 
cold to 15" R. and preserves itself we^i 



[262] 



(Wire Lubricants) 



(Wood Lubricants) 



from oxidation, but it is one of the drying 
oils and therefore useless as a watch oil. 

3. — Olive oil, up to the present the 
most useful among watch oils, does not 
dry or thicken, nor does it oxidate for a 
comparatively long time, but it hardens 
at 2° R. ^ 

4. — The properties of neatsfoot oil are 
similar to those of olive oil, but it ex- 
ceeds the latter in resistance against oxi- 
dation. 

Wire Ropeways 

1. — Tar, 100 parts; brewer's pitch, 100 
parts ; colophony, 25 parts ; train oil, 10 
to 25 parts, are melted together and 
stirred until the mass is cold. 

2. — For the lubrication of wire ropes 
use a mixture of mica, axle grease, tar, 
and summer oil. According to the En- 
gineering and Mining Journal this is un- 
patented, and can be made of any desired 
consistency. The tar and oil must be 
free from acid. It is claimed that it thor- 
oughly penetrates between the wires, pre- 
vents rust, and fills the cable, resists 
water, does not strip, and is very econom- 
ical if added sparingly, as all lubricants 
should be, after the first dose. It goes 
without saying that cables well taken 
eare of will last very much longer than 



neglected ones; besides which, there is 
the far more important matter of safety 
in mine hoists to be considered, one con- 
dition of this being the clean state of the 
interior wire surfaces. 

Wood, Lubricants for 

1. — Wood screws or any wood surfaces 
that rub can be successfully lubricated 
with plain plumbago (black lead). It 
can be applied mixed with water to the 
consistency of paint, or it will do if it 
can be dusted on dry. 

2. — To a quantity of good lard, ren- 
dered semi-fluid (but not liquid) by gentle 
heat in an iron pan, is gradually added 
1-5 part by weight of finely powdered 
and sifted graphite (black lead), with 
careful and continued " stirring until the 
mass is homogeneous and smooth : the 
heat is then steadily increased till the 
compound liquefies, when it is allowed 
to cool, the stirring having been mean- 
while kept up unceasingly. 

3.— Tallow, 8 lb.: palm oil, 10 lb.; 
graphite (black lead), 1 lb. 

4. — Lard. 2% lb. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; 
graphite (black lead), % lb. Rub ur> the 
camphor into a paste with part of the 
lard in a mortnr, add the graphite and 
the rest of the lard, and intimately m«*. 



[263 3 



CHAPTER IX. 



PAINTS, VARNISHES, BRONZING, LACQUERS, STAINS, SIZES, 
DRIERS, WHITEWASHES, ETC. 

BRIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 

BRONZING PAINTS 

ENAMEL PAINTS . . SIZE 

FILLERS VARNISHES 

JAPANS AND JAPANNING WHITEWASH 
LAOQUiERS AND LACQUERING 



The subject of paints, pigments, var- 
nishes, japans and lacquers offers peculiar 
difficulties when it comes to classifica- 
tion. Where does a varnish begin and a 
'acquer end? This is a question which is 
almost impossible to answer. The classi- 
fication in this book is based on certain 
well-known distinctions and is perhaps 
sufficiently accurate for the ordinary user. 
A series of definitions from the Century 
Dictionary may, however, not come amiss, 
but as has already been remarked, the 
line of demarkation between the various 
classes of paints, etc., is not well marked. 

Drier. — Any substance added to a paint 
to increase its drying qualities. It may 
be a liquid, such as japan, or a dry ma- 
terial, as oxide of lead, oxide of mangan- 
ese, burnt umber or sugar of lead. 

Japan. — A liquid having somewhat the 
nature of a varnish, made by cooking 
gum shellac with linseed oil in a varnish 
kettle. Litharge or some similar material 
is also usually added to quicken the dry- 
ing of the resulting japan. 

Lacquer. — An opaque varnish contain- 
ing lac, properly so called. Especially 
the kind of varnish consisting of shellac 
dissolved in alcohol, with the aid of other 
ingredients, particularly coloring matters. 
It is also applied to different materials 
to protect them from tarnishing and to 
give them luster, especially to brass. 

Paint. — A substance used in painting, 
composed of a dry coloring material in- 
timately mixed with a liquid vehicle. It 
differs from a dye in that it is not de- 
signed to sink into the substance to which 
it is applied, but to form a superficial 
coating. 

Pigment. — Any substance that is or can 
be used by painters to impart color to 
bodies ; technically, a dry substance usual- 
ly in the form of powder or in lumps 
so lightly held together as to be easily 



pulverized, which, after it has been mixed 
with a liquid medium can be applied by 
painters to surfaces to be colored. Pig- 
ment is properly restricted to the dry 
coloring matter which, when mixed with 
a vehicle, becomes a paint, but the two 
words are commonly used without dis- 
crimination. 

Siccative. — In painting, any material 
added to an oil paint to hasten the drying 
of the oil; a dryer. Siccative is more of 
a book word, dryer being the term com- 
monly used by painters. 

Stain. — To color by a process other 
than painting or coating or covering the 
surface. (a) To color (as glass) by 
something which combines chemically 
with a substance to be colored, (b) To 
color by the use of a thin liquid which 
penetrates the material, as in dyeing 
cloth or staining wool. 

Varnish. — A solution of resinous mat- 
ter, forming a clear, limpid fluid capable 
of hardening without losing its trans- 
ency; used by painters, gilders, cabinet 
makers and others for coating over tne 
surface of their work in order to give it 
a shining, transparent and hard surface, 
capable of resisting, in a greater or less 
degree, the influences of air and moisture. 

BRONZING 

1. — Copper powder is obtained by sat- 
urating nitrous acid with copper, and 
then precipitating the copper by exposing 
iron bars in the solution. 

2. — Dutch foil, reduced to a powder by 
grinding, is also used, and powdered 
plumbago gives an iron-colored shade. 

3. — Another kind is made from ver- 
digris, 8 parts; putty powder, 4 parts; 
borax, 2 parts; bichloride of mercury, i^: 
part; grind into a paste with oil and 
fuse them together. 



r 265 ] 



(Bronzes) 



(Fillers) 



4. — Another (red) : Sulph. copper, 100 
parts; carb. soda, 60 parts; mix and in- 
corporate by heat; cool, powder, and 
add copper filings, 15 parts; mix; keep 
at a white heat for 20 minutes; cool, 
powder, wash and dry. 

Banana Oil for Bronzing Solutions. — 
This oil, so named on account of the odor 
imparted by its amyl acetate constituent, 
seems to have no definite formula, but 
to vary in composition according to the 
ideas of those who prepare it. This is 
usually a mixture of equal parts of amyl 
acetate, acetone and benzine, with just 
enough pyroxylin dissolved therein to give 
the finished product sufficient body ana 
to leave a protective covering after the 
liquids have evaporated. A solution of 
1 gram of celluloid in 25 c. c. of amyl 
acetate is sometimes sold for banana on. 
This "oil" and its vapor, it should be 
remembered, are quite inflammable. 

Gold Paint. — 1. — Do not mix the gold 
size and powder together, but go over 
the article to be gilded with the size 
alone, giving an even and moderate coat- 
ing. Let it dry, which will not take 
long, till it is just sticky, or, as gilders 
call it, tacky. Then over a sheet of 
smooth writing paper dust on the dry 
gold powder by means of a stout, soft, 
sable brush. 

2. — Bisulphide of tin has a golden 
luster, flaky texture, and is used for or- 
namental work, such as paper hangings, 
and as a substitute for gold leaf. 

3._Gold Bronze Powder.— a.— ir'ure 
gold bronze powder may be made as fol- 
lows : Grind leaf gold with pure honey 
until the leaves are broken up and mi- 
nutely divided. Remove this mixture from 
the stone by a spatula and stir up in a 
basin of water; the watei All melt the 
honey and set the gold free. Leave the 
basin undisturbed until the gold subsides. 
Pour off the water and add fresh instead, 
until the honey is entirely washed away, 
after which collect the gold on filtering 
pans and dry for use. b. — A cheaper sort 
may be made thus: Melt 1 lb. of tm in 
a crucible and pour it on % lb. of pure 
mercury; when this is solid grind it into 
powder with 7 oz. of flowers of sulphur 
and ^ lb. of sal ammoniac. 

4.— Gold Enamel Paints.— The "green 
ing" of the vehicle, which is very objec- 
tionable and unsightly, is set up by free 
acid in the medium, and as these bronzes 
are very readily attacked by acids, this 
is the reason of this greenish appearance 
developing, as chemical reaction takes 
place. It may be overcome by neutraliz- 
ing any acid in the liquid used as a 



binder by the addition of lime, etc., as in 
the Bessemer paint. 

DRIEiRS 

There are several kinds of driers, but 
the best usually have litharge or sugar 
of lead as the important '^drying" agent. 
Litharge is best for dark and middle 
tints, while sugar of lead is better suited 
for light tints. 

1. — For a liquid drier, boil 1 qt. of lin- 
seed oil for 1 hour with 1 lb. finely pow- 
dered binoxide of manganese. For a solid 
drier use borate of manganese in powder, 
or mixed with oil. 

2. — A good drier for paints is made by 
grinding or dissolving a small quantity 
of sugar of lead in linseed oil. 

3. — Drier for Oil Colors and Varnishes. 
—Water, 100 parts ; gum lac, 12 parts ; 
borax, 4 parts. 

4. — Driers ( Painters' ) . — Litharge 

(best) ground to a paste, with drying oil. 
For dark colors. 

5. — White copperas and drying oil. As 
the last. 

6. — Sugar of lead and drying oil. The 
last two are for pale colors. 

7. — White copperas and sugar of lead, 
of each 1 lb. ; pure white lead, 2 lb. For 
"whites," and opaque light colors, grays, 
etc. Driers are employed, as the name 
implies, to increase the drying and hard- 
ening properties of oil paints. A little 
is beat up with them at the time of mix- 
ing them with the oil of turpentine for 
use. 

FILLERS FOR WOOD 

1. — Take equal parts of japan, boiled 
linseed oil and turpentine, and half that 
quantity of starch. Mix thoroughly, and 
apply with a sponge or flannel. When 
the polish is for walnut, a little burnt 
umber is added to the solution, and a 
little Venetian red when for cherry wood. 

2. — American Wood Filler, — Apply to 
the wood with a brush the following mix- 
ture : Pulverized starch, by weight, 3 
parts ; heavy spar, 3 parts, % by weight 
of siccative, with enough turpentine to 
make of the consistency of ordinary var- 
nish. For dark woods add to the sicca- 
tive, umber up to % part. Rub across 
the grain of the wood with a piece of 
felt fastened to a piece of wood. Let the 
wood dry about 8 hours, rub with glass 
paper, then polish and varnish. 

3. — Filling for Cracks. — A very com- 
plete filling for open cracks in floors may 
be made by thoroughly soaking newspa- 
pers in paste made of 1 lb. of flour, 3 qt. 
of water and 1 tablespoonful of alum, 
thoroughly boiled and mixed. Make the 



[266] 



(Japans) 



(Japans) 



final mixture about as thick as putty, and 
it will harden like papier mache. This 
paper may be used for molds for various 
purposes. 

4. — German Wood Filling. — Fill the 
pores of the wood with new tallow and 
plaster of paris, well amalgamated before 
a fire, if the weather is cold. Darken, 
if required, with any coloring to suit. 
When well rubbed in, give a coat of shel- 
lac and French polish or varnish. 

JAPANS AND JAPANNING 

When finished, wood, papier mache. 
composition or materials are varnished in 
the usual manner and left to dry in the 
ail , the drying is, in most cases, imper- 
fect, and the coating more or less un- 
even. If the surface thus varnished is 
heated for some time to a temperature of 
from 250 to 300° F., or higher, it is 
found that the whole of the solvent or 
vehicle of the gums or rosins in the var- 
nish is soon driven off, and the gummy 
residue becomes liquefied or semi-lique- 
fied, in which state it adapts itself to all 
inequalities, and, if the coating is thick 
enough, presents a uniform glossy sur- 
face, which it retains on cooling. This 
process of drying out and fusion secures 
a firm contact and adhesion of the gums 
or rosins to the surface of the substance 
varnished, and greatly increases the den- 
sity of the coating, which enables it to 
resist wear and retain its gloss longer. 
This process of hardening and finishing 
varnished or lacquered work by the aid 
of heat constitutes the chief feature of 
the japanner's art. In practice, the work 
to be japanned is first thoroughly cleansed 
and dried. If of wood, composition, or 
other porous material, it is given, while 
warm, several coats of wood filler, or 
whiting mixed up with a rather thin glue 
size, and is, when this is hardened, rubbed 
down smooth with pumice stone. It is 
then ready for the japan grounds. Met- 
als, as a rule, require no special prepara- 
tion, receiving the grounds directly on the 
clean, dry surface. In japanning, wood 
and similar substances require a much 
lower degree of heat, and usually a longer 
exposure in the oven than metals, and 
again a higher temperature may be ad- 
vantageously employed when the japan is 
dark than when light-colored grounds are 
used ; so that a definite knowledge of just 
how much heat can be safely applied, 
and how long an exposure is required with 
different substances and different grounds 
can only be acquired by practical expe- 
rience. Large japanners seldom make 
their own varnishes, as they can procure 
them more cheaply from the varnish 



maker. The japanner's oven is usually a 
room, or large box, constructed of sheet 
metal, and heated by stove drums or flues, 
so that the temperature — which is indicat- 
ed by a thermometer or pyrometer hung 
up inside, or with its stem passing 
through the side wall midway between 
the top and bottom of the chamber — can 
be readily regulated by dampers. The 
ovens are also provided with a chimney 
to carry off the vapors derived from the 
drying varnish, a small door through 
which the work can be entered and re- 
moved, and wire shelves and hooks for its 
support in the chamber. The ovens must 
be kept perfectly free from dust, smoke 
and moisture. A good cheap priming var- 
nish for work to be japanned consists of 
pale shellac, 2 oz. ; pale rosin, 2 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit, 1 pt. Two or three coats 
of this are put on the work in a warm, 
dry room. A good background is prepared 
by grinding fine ivory black with a suffi- 
cient quantity of alcoholic shellac var- 
nish on a stone slab with a muller until 
a perfectly smooth black varnish is ob- 
tained. If other colors are required, the 
clear varnish is mixed and ground with 
the proper quantity of suitable pigments, 
in a similar manner ; for red, vermilion 
or Indian red ; green, chrome green or 
Prussian blue and chrome yellow ; blue, 
Prussian blue, ultramarine or indigo ; yel- 
low, chrome yellow, etc. But black is the 
hue commonly required. 

Applications. — From 1 to 6 or more 
coats of varnish are applied to work in 
japanning, each coat being hardened in 
the oven before the next is put on. The 
last coat in colored work is usually of 
clear varnish, without coloring matters, 
and is, in fine work, sometimes finished 
with rotten stone and chamois. For ordi- 
nary work, the gloss developed in the 
oven, under favorable conditions, is suffi- 
cient. 

Black. — 1. — Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled 
oil, 4 qt. ; burnt umber, 8 oz. Mix by 
heat, and, when cooling, thin with tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Amber, 12 oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; 
fuse by heat, and add boiled oil, % pt. ; 
rosin, 2 oz. ; when cooling, add 16 oz. of 
oil of turpentine. Both are used to var- 
nish metals. 

3. — Mix shellac varnish with either 
ivory black or lampblack, but the former 
is preferable. These may be always laid 
on with the shellac varnish, and h^ve 
their upper or polishihg coats of common 
seed lac varnish. 

4. — A common black japan may be 
made by painting a piece of work 'with 
drying oil and putting the work into a 



[267] 



(Japans) 



(Lacquers) 



stove, not too hot, but of such a degree 
as will change the oil black without burn- 
ing it, gradually raising the heat and 
keeping it up a long time. This requires 
no polishing. 

5. — Asphaltum, ^ lb.; melt; then add 
hot balsam of capivi, 1 lb. ; and when 
mixed, thin with hot oil of turpentine. 

6. — Grind lampblack very smooth on a 
marble slab, with a muller, with turpen- 
tine, and then add copal varnish to the 
proper consistency. 

7. — For Leather. — Burnt umber, 4 oz. ; 
true asphaltum, 2 oz. ; Doiled oil, 2 qt. 
Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a lit- 
tle of the oil, add the burnt umber, ground 
in oil, and the remainder of the oil ; mix, 
cool, and thin with turpentine. Flex- 
ible. 



LACQUERS AND LACQUERING 

Materials for Lacquering. — The lacquer 
= shellac + alcohol. Other substances : 

A, spirits of turpentine, turpentine var- 
nish, mastic varnish, Canada balsam; 

B, pyroacetic ether; C = red, dragon's 
blood, annatto, red sanders; D = yellow, 
turmeric, gamboge, saffron, sandarac, cape 
aloes. 

Directions for Making. — Mix the in- 
gredients, and let the vessel containing 
them stand in the sun, or in a place slight- 
ly warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it fre- 
quently till the gum is dissolved, after 
which let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, 
when the clear liquid may be poured off 
for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes 



TABLES OF LACQUERS. 













Solutions. 








Reds. 






Yellows. 












u 






u 

13 


























a 

as 

K 




.a 


S3 

H 


> 




i 

o 
























rj 




o 




4) 


f-< 


W 












CO 












« 




13 


o 


fl 


I 


DS 






d 


q; 




% 


o 






o 


o 


rt 




o 




C 




d 


o 


2 


•C 


bfi 


d' 


< 


Oj 








'C 


fi 






a> 








0) 










OS 








X3 


eS 


o 


•c 


ft 


a 


Wi 




TJ 


a 


u 


<D 








a> 




a 


9{ 


u 


u 


a 


03 


d 


d 


(h 


5ti 


a 


d 






.E3 




ej 


^f 


>» 


o* 


P 






ej 






oi 


Oj 


(S 






m 


^ 


O 


< 


Ph 


m 


H 


m 


« 


< 


W 


H 


o 


M 


O 


so 




No. 


oz. 


dr. 


dr. 


pt. 


oz. 


dr. 


oz. 


.pt. 


dr. 


dr. 


sr. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 




1 








1 




















• • . 




• . . 


Strong simple. 


2 








1 












... 






». . 


. . . 




... 


Simple pale. 


3 








1 

1 


















1 
1 


'*2 




... 


Fine pale. 
Fine pale. 


4 
















1 


5 


2 






2 
2 










1 
1 


1 
8 




'32 


16 


4 




8 
8 


/^ine pale. 


6 










Pale gold. 


7 


2 
5 






1 
3 


















2 
5 


... 




... 


Pale yellow. 


8 


30 
















Pale yellow — (Ross's.) 


9 






1 


... 


1 
2 




4 
16 
64 
20 
16 


Full yellow. 


10 


3 
3 

1 
3 






1 

4 
1 
1 










::: 




*i4 

5 


Gold. 


11 






6 






Gold. 


1^ 










Gold. 


13 










4 






Deep gold. 


14 


3 






1 










4 






1 




. . . 




. . . 


Deep gold. 


15 


3 






1 










40 






10 




. . . 




. . . 


Deep gold. 


Ifi 


















8 

8 

20 


32 
24 




... 


... 


... 




*27 


Red. 


17 


1 
15 














Red. 


18 


30 


30 


6 








60 




10 




Tin lacquer. 


19 
















1 


... 


... 




4 


1 


... 


... 


... 


Green for bronze 










* 











The union of red with yellow produces a fine orange color, dr. = drachm ; gr. = grain. 



used in making lacquer, to carry down 
the impurities. 

Brass 

1. — Be sure there is no oil or grease 
on the brass ; do not touch the work with 
the fingers ; hold it with spring tongs or a 
taper stick in some of the holes. 



2. — Always handle with a piece of clean 
cloth. 

3. — Heat the work so hot that the brush 
will smoke when applied, but avoid over- 
heating, as it burns the lacquer. 

4. — It is well to fasten a small wire 
across the lacquer cup, from side to side, 
to scrape any superfluous lacquer. The 



[268] 



(Lacquers) 



(Lacquers) 



brush should have the ends of the hairs 
all exactly even. If not so, trim the 
ends with sharp scissors. 

5. — 'Scrape the brush as dry as possible 
on the wire, making a flat, smooth point 
at the same time. 

6. — Use the very tip of the brush to 
lacquer with, and carry a steady hand. 

7. — Put on at least 2 coats. It is well 
(to make a very durable coat) to blaze 
off after each coat with a spirit lamp or 
Bunsen burner, taking care not to over- 
heat and burn the lacquer. 

8. — If the lacquer is too thick it will 
look gummy on the work. If too thin, it 
will show prismatic colors. In the first 
case add a little alcohol ; in the latter, set 
the cup on the stove and evaporate some. 

9. — A good deal of cheap work, like 
lamp burners, is dipped. Use a bath of ni- 
tric and sulphuric acids, equal parts ; dip 
work, hung on wire, into acid for a mo- 
ment ; remove, rinse in cold water thor- 
oughly ; dip in hot water, remove, put 
in alcohol, rinse around, then dip momen- 
tarily in a lacquer, shaking vigorously 
on removing, to throw off extra lacquer, 
and lay on a warm metal plate till dry ; 
let cool, and it is done. 

10. — Avoid handling lacquered work un- 
til cold. 

Lacquers for Brass. — 1. — Seed lac, 
dragon's blood, annatto and gamboge, of 
each 4 oz. ; saffron, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 10 pt. 

2. — Turmeric, 1 lb. ; annatto, 2 oz. ; 
shellac and gum juniper, each 12 oz. ; 
alcohol, 12 oz. 

3. — Seed lac, 6 oz. ; dragon's blood, 40 
gr. ; amber and copal, triturated in a mor- 
tar, 2 oz. ; extract of red sanders, % dr. ; 
Oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; coarsely pow- 
dered glass, 4 oz. ; absolute alcohol, 40 
oz. Very fine. 

4, — Seed lac, 3 oz. ; amber and gam- 
boge, each 2 oz. ; extract of red sanders, 
% dr. ; dargon's blood, 1 dr. ; saffron, ^^ 
dr. ; alcohol, 2 pt. 4 oz. 

5. — Turmeric, 6 dr. ; saffron, 15 gr. ; 
hot alcohol, 1 pt. ; draw the tincture, and 
add gamboge, 6 dr. ; gum sandrac and 
gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; dragon's blood 
and seed lac, each 1 oz. 

6. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; an- 
natto and saffron, each 2 dr. Agitate fre- 
quently for a week, filter into a clean 
bottle, and add seed lac, 3 oz. Let stand, 
with occasional agitation, for about 2 
weeks. 

7. — Gamboge, % oz. ; aloes, 1^ oz. ; 
fine shellac, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gal. 

8. — Put 3 oz. of seed lac, 2 dr. of 
dragon's blood and 1 oz. of turmeric pow- 
der into 1 pt. of alcohol. Let the whole 
remain for 14 days, but during that time 



agitate the bottle once a day at least. 
When properly combined, strain the liquid 
through muslin, when it is ready for use. 
9. — To 5 oz. of alcohol add gamboge 
enough to give a bright yellow color, and 

3 oz. of seed lac in fine powder. Put in 
a sand bath till dissolved. 

10. — Ground turmeric, as sold, 1 oz. ; 
saffron and Spanish annatto, each 2 dr. ; 
highly rectified alcohol, 1 pt. Place them 
in a moderate heat, shaking occasionally, 
for several days ; then add 3 oz. of good 
seed lac, roughly powdered ; shake occa- 
sionally until the lac is dissolved. If a 
deep orange lacquer is required, increase 
the quantity of annatto ; if a bright yel- 
low, decrease it. Lay it on with a brush 
(warm), like you would paint. One or 
more coats, if necessary. Avoid using too 
much seed lac, as it has a tendency to 
prevent the lacquer lying evenly. 

11. — Pale gold lacquer is best for mi- 
croscope; be sure and get the best qual- 
ity, and see that the things are sufficiently 
hot before putting on the lacquer ; heat 
after lacquering, and it will stand well. 
Damp will affect the best lacquering. 

12. — No. 3 is best for optical work. 
If it comes off, either the metal was not 
clean, when applied, or else it was put 
on cold. The metal should be heated to 
just such a point that it dries as fast 
as the brush paces over ^ it. Work is 
often spoiled in lacquering. Circular 
things may be done in the lathe, going 
quite slow, and working a good body by 
going around several times. 

13. — Bronzed Brass. — To 1 pt. of the 
above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz. ; and 
after mixing it add an equal quantity 
of the first lacquer. 

14. — Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, proof spe- 
cific gravity not less than 95-100, 2 gal. ; 
seed lac, 1 lb. ; gum copal, 1 oz. ; English 
saffron, 1 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. 

15. — Gold-(Jolored Lacquer for Dipped 
Brass. — Alcohol, 36 oz, ; seed lac, 6 oz. ; 
amber, 2 oz. ; gum gutta, 2 oz. ; red san- 
dalwood, 24 gr. ; dragon's blood, 60 gr. ; 
Oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; pulverized glass, 

4 oz. 

16. — Gold-Colored Lacquer for Brass 
Not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gal. ; turmeric, 
3 lb. ; gamboge, 3 oz. ; gum sandrac, 7 
lb. ; shellac, 1% lb. ; turpentine varnish, 
1 pt. 

17. — Gold-Colored Lacquer for Brass 
Watch Cases, etc. — Seed lac, 6 oz. ; am- 
ber, 2 oz. ; gamboge, 2 oz. ; extract of red 
sanders wood in water, 24 gr. ; dragon's 
blood, 60 gr. ; oriental saffron, 36 gr. ; 
powdered glass, 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 36 
oz. The seed lac, amber, gamboge and 
dragon's blood must be pounded very fine 



[269] 



(Lacquers) 



(Lacquers) 



on porphyry or clean marble, and mixed 
with the pounded glass. Over this mix- 
ture is poured the tincture formea by 
infusing the saffron and the sanders wood 
extract in the alcohol for 24 hours, then 
straining. Metallic articles that are to 
be covered with this varnish are heated, 
and, if they admit of it, immersed in 
packets. 

18. — For philosophical instruments : 
Gamboge, iy2 oz. ; sandarac, 4 oz. ; 
elemi, 4 oz. ; best dragon's blood, 2 oz. ; 
terra merita (terra merita is the root ot 
an Indian plant ; it is of a red color, and 
much used in dyeing; in varnishing, it is 
only employed in the form of a tincture, 
and is particularly well adapted for the 
mixture of those coloring parts which 
contribute the most toward giving metals 
the color of gold ; in choosing it, , be care- 
ful to observe that it is sound and com- 
pact), iy2 oz. ; Oriental saffron, 4 gr. ; 
seed lac, 2 oz. ; pounded glass, 6 oz. ; pure 
alcohol, 40 oz. The dragon's blood, gum 
elemi, seed lac and gamboge are all pound- 
ed and mixed with the glass. Over them 
is poured the tincture obtained by in- 
fusing the saffron and terra merita in 
the alcohol for 24 hours. This tincture, 
before being poured over the dragon's 
blood, etc., should be strained through a 
piece of clean linen cloth and strongly 
squeezed. If the dragon's blood gives too 
high a color the quantity may be less- 
ened, according to circumstances. The 
same is the case with the other coloring 
matters. This lacquer has a very good 
effect when applied to many cast or mold- 
ed articles used in ornamenting furniture. 

Bronze Lacquers. — 1. — To make a 
bronze lacquer, dissolve % lb. of shellac 
and % lb. of sandarac in 3 qt. of alco- 
hol, and add enough extract of dragon's 
blood and turmeric to produce the desired 
color. 

2. — For ornaments bronzed with gold- 
colored bronze, paint the articles, of cast 
iron, with white paint, which is white 
lead and oil ; when hard dry, varnish with 
copal varnish ; when sticky dry, dust the 
bronze powder over it ; and when hard 
dry, brush off all the superfluous bronze 
with a camel's-hair brush. To protect 
it from the dust and from soiling, coat 
the bronze surface, when thoroughly dry, 
with spirit copal varnish. 

Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 pt. ; an- 
n"tto, 2 oz. 

Colorless Lacquer. — 1. — For a colorless 
lacquer, dissolve bleached shellac in pure 
alcohol, settle, and decant. Make the 
lacquer very thin. The usual lacquer for 
brass is made with ordinary shellac and 



alcohol, made very thin, settled, and de- 
canted. 

2. — Mastic, 5 parts ; amber, 5 parts ; 
sandarac, 10 parts; shellac, 10 parts; al- 
cohol, 100 parts. 

Copper. — Mastic, 8 parts ; camphor, 6 
parts ; sandarac, 15 parts ; bleached shel- 
lac, 15 parts ; alcohol, 40 parts. 

Green Lacquer. — 1. — Turmeric, 18 oz. ; 
shellac, 15 oz. ; gum sandarac, 1 oz. ; 
gum elemi, 3 oz. ; gamboge, 3 oz. ; methyl- 
ated spirits, 3 gal. ; expose to a gentle 
heat; after straining, add 1% gal. of 
spirit to the sediment, and treat as before. 

2. — Mix 5 oz. of shellac, 6 oz. of tur- 
meric, 4 oz. of gum sandarac and 1 oz. 
each of gum elemi and gum gamboge in 
1 gal. methylated spirits ; expose to gentle 
heat, strain, add % gal. of spirit to the 
sediment, and treat as before. 

Iron, Lacquer for. — 1. — Asphaltum, 10 
parts ; rosin, 3 parts ; lampblack, 1 part ; 
petroleum, 25 parts. 

2. — Amber, 12 parts ; turpentine, 12 
parts ; rosin, 2 parts ; asphaltum, 2 
parts ; drying oil, 6 parts. 

3. — Asphaltum, 3 lb. ; shellac, % lb. ; 
turpentine, 1 gal. 

Sheet Metal, Lacquer for. — Asphaltum, 
5 parts ; colophony, 3 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine varnish, 10 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 14 parts. 

Steel, Lacquer for, — Pure mastic, 8 
parts ; camphor, 4 parts ; sandarac, 12 
parts ; elemi, 4 parts. Dissolve ?n pure 
alcohol ; filter. Use the lacquer cold. It 
will be clear and transparent when dry. 

Tin Plate, Lacquer for. — 1. — Alcohol, 
12 oz. ; turmeric, 6 dr. ; saffron, 3 scru- 
ples ; sandarac, 3 dr. ; Canada balsam, 3 
dr. ; mastic, 3 dr. When dissolved, add 
oil of turpentine, 120 minims. 

2. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; red 
sanders, 1 oz. ; turmeric, 2 oz. Shake fre- 
quently for 24 hours, and bottle. Various 
colors can be given to the lacquer by 
adding Prussian blue, lakes, etc. 

Tinfoil, Lacquer for. — Alcohol, 1^ qt. ; 
shellac, 10^4 oz. Dissolve the shellac in 
the alcohol and filter. Prevent the evap- 
oration of the alcohol as much as possi- 
ble. Add to this shellac varnish, 5^ oz. 
best white gum elemi and 21 dr. Venetian 
turpentine. Let this mixture stand in a 
warm place ; stir it frequently. Filter ; 
press out the remainder, and add to the 
filtrate. This varnish may be colored if 
desired. 

Tools, Lacquer for. — The tools must be 
cleaned and polished so as to be absolute- 
ly free from grease. They are next slight- 
ly warmed and varnished with a solution 
of seed lac or shellac in alcohol. The 
•^nccess of the operation depends on the 



[270] 



(Paints) 



(Paints) 



clearness of the surface, A finger touch 
before varnishing will atfect the finish. 

Transparent Lacquer. — Powdered gum 
sandarac, 4 parts ; turpentine, 7 parts ; 
spirit of turpentine, 28 parts. Dissolve 
the turpentine and the powdered gum san- 
darac over a water bath, in the spirit of 
turpentine. Before this varnish is used 
the bottle should be exposed to the sun 
for about an hour. 

Zinc, Lacquer for. — A good lacquer con- 
sists of : Alcohol, 8 oz. ; gamboge, 1 oz. ; 
shellac, 3 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 
3 oz. of seed lac in 1 pt. of alcohol. 
When dissolved add 14 oz. of Venice tur- 
pentine and 1/4 oz. of dragon's blood to 
make it dark. Keep in a warm place 
for 4 or 5 days. 

PAINTS 

Aluminum Paint 

Aluminum, when reduced to fine pow- 
der and mixed with a solution of gum lac 
in water, gives a metallic paint which 
covers well, and which may be tinted with 
aniline dies soluble in water. The solu- 
tion of lac is made as follows : Soda 
crystals, 8 oz. ; borax, 8 oz. ; gum lac, 2 
lb. ; water, 1 gal. Boil the water and 
soda crystals and borax together, then 
add the lac, keep boiling till lac is dis- 
solved. If this solution comes too thick, 
add more water and borax (1 oz. borax 
to 1 pt. of water). To this solution, alu- 
minum, finely powdered, is added in suffi- 
cient quantity to produce a paint suffi- 
ciently fluid to apply with a brush. This 
paint is brilliant, durable, and impermea- 
ble, and is uitable j'or wood, metals, 
paper and cloth. If required more elastic 
add 1 oz. glycerine to every gallon of lac 
solution. 

Anti-corrosion Paint 

1. — An Anti-corrosion Paint for Iron. 
— If 10% of burnt magnesia, or even 
baryta or strontia, is mixed cold with 
ordinary linseed oil paint, and then 
enough mineral oil to develop the al- 
kaline earth, the free acid of the paint 
will be neutralized, while the iron will 
be protected by the permanent alkaline 
action of the paint. Iron to be buried 
in damp earth may be painted with a 
mixture of 100 parts of rosin (colo- 
phony), 25 of gutta percha, and 50 of 
paraffine, to which 20 of magnesia and 
some mineral oil have been added. 

2. — Take equal parts by weifi:ht of whit- 
ing and white lead, with half the quan- 
tity of fine sand, gravel, or road dust, and 
a sufficient quantity of coloring matter. 
This mixture is made in water and can be 
used as a water color; but it is more 



durable to dry it, as cakes or powder, 
after mixing, and then use it as an oil 
paint by grinding it again in linseed oil. 
The preparation of oil recommended for 
this purpose is : 12 parts by weight of lin- 
seed oil ; 1 part boiled linseed oil and 3 
parts sulphate of lime, well mixed. 1 gal. 
of this prepared oil is used to 7 lb. of 
the powder. 

Boilers, Paint for 

1. — Use asphaltum varnish. There is 
little or no odor from it when dry. 

2. — Coal tar and ground graphite 
thinned with turpentine make an excellent 
paint for boiler fronts and pipes in boiler 
room. The steam pipes for heating 
should not be painted, or if required, 
should only have a very thin coat of lamp- 
black and linseed oil. Tin is unfit for 
roofs of boiler houses. Slate is best. You 
can make a temporary covering on the 
tin roof with asphalt and gravel. This 
will not save the tin, which will soon 
give out entirely. The cheapest way out 
of your trouble is to take off the tin 
and slate the roof. 

3. — Rub it over with a mixture of 
boiled oil and lampblack. From the latter 
the grease should be taken before mix- 
ing by placing it in a flower pot, the top 
and bottom sealed with clay and sub- 
jected to a good heat. 

Destroying Paint 

Mix 1 part by weight of American pearl- 
ash with 3 parts quick stone lime by 
slaking the lime in water, and then adding 
the pearlash, making the mixture about 
the consistency of paint. La.y the above 
over the whole of the work required to 
be cleaned with an old brush ; let it re- 
main 14 or 16 hours, when the paint can 
be easily scraped off. 

Funnel Paints for Yachts 

1.— Zinc white, 98 lb. ; China clay, 98 
lb. ; ultramarine blue, i/^ lb. ; pale rosin 
oil, 2 gal. ; silicate of soda, 20 gal. Proc- 
ess. — Mix well together and strain. 
This may be used independently, or with 
good effects over a previous coat of No. 
3 white funnel paint, as the lime will 
prevent the zinc discoloring. 

2.— Back Funnel Paint.— Oxide of 
manganese, 119 lb.; bone black, 70 lb.; 
black lead, 10 lb. ; rosin oil, 4 gal. ; sili- 
cate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As before. 
All require grinding, and when using 
should be constantly stirred. 

3. — Blue Funnel Paint. — China clay, 
189 lb. ; ultramarine blue, 30 lb. ; pale 
rosin oil, 4 gal. ; silicate of soda, 18 gal. 
Process. — As before. 



[271] 



(Paints) 



(Paints) 



4. — Cream Funnel Paint. — White chalk 
lime, 84 lb. ; whiting, 40 lb. ; powdered 
litharge, 196 lb.; pale rosin oil, 4 gal.; 
silicate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As be- 
fore; add the litharge last, mixed with a 
little water. 

5.— Red Funnel Paint, Bright.— White 
chalk lime, 84 lb.; whiting, 40 lb.; red 
lead, 196 lb. ; pale rosin oil, 4 gal. ; sili- 
cate of soda, 20 gal. Process. — As before. 
Should the mixture turn hard on the addi- 
tion of the red lead, add more rosin oil 
and stir well in. 

Grease Spots, to Kill 

Before painting, wash the part with 
saltpeter, or very thin lime whitewash. 
If soapsuds are used, they must be 
washed off thoroughly, as they prevent 
the paint from drying hard. 

Iron, Paints for 

A good cheap black paint or var- 
nish for iron work is prepared as fol- 
lows : Clear ( solid ) wood tar, 10 lb. ; 
lampblack, or mineral black, 1^ lb. ; oil 
of turpentine, 5^/^ qt. The tar is first 
heated in a large iron pot to boiling, or 
nearly so, and the heat is continued for 
about 4 hours. The pot is then removed 
from fire out of doors, and while still 
warm, not hot, the turpentine mixed with 
the black is stirred in. If the varnish is 
too thick to dry quickly, add more tur- 
pentine. Benzine can be used instead of 
turpentine, but the results are not so 
good. Asphaltum is preferable to the 
cheap tar. 

Protecting Iron. — Cast-iron water pipes 
and other articles may be preserved by 
covering the inside and out with pitch, 
heated to 300° F. and kept at this point 
during the dipping. As the material de- 
teriorates after a number of pipes 
have been dipped, fresh pitch is frequently 
added, and at least 8% of heavy linseed 
oil put to it daily ; the vessel is also 
entirely emptied of the pitch and refilled 
with fresh material, as often as is neces- 
sary to insure the perfection of the proc- 
ess. Each casting is kept immersed from 
thirty to forty-five minutes, or until it at- 
tains a temperature of 300° F. After the 
bath is completed, the castings are re- 
moved and placed to drip in such a posi- 
tion that the thickness of the varnish will 
be uniform. It is essential that the coat- 
ing be tenacious when cold, and not brittle 
or disposed to scale off. The pitch or 
varnish is made from coal tar, distilled 
until all the naphtha is removed, the 
material deodorized, and the pitch like 
wax or very thick molasses. 



Tar Paint for Iron Work. — Tar, 191 
lb. ; sulphur, 7 lb, ; red lead, 7 lb. ; white 
lead, 7 lb. Process: Boil together until 
reduced in bulk one-half. 

Magnets, Red Paint Used on 

The "paint" used on magnets is usually 
non-conducting shellac varnish, carrying 
cinnabar. Try the following formula ; 
Cinnabar, pulverized, 3 parts ; Venice tur- 
pentine, 2 parts ; shellac, pale, 1 part ; 
alcohol, 95%, sufficient. Melt turpentine 
and shellac, remi^ve from fire, let cool 
down to about 140° F. and add 10 parts 
of the alcohol. Rub up the cinnabar with 
sufficient alcohol to make a paste, and add 
it to the melted mixture. Put on a water 
bath for a few minutes, and stir continu- 
ously until a smooth, homogeneous fluid 
is obtained. Remove from fire and stir 
until cold. Preserve in well-stoppered 
vials, and when desired for use return to 
the water bath and heat until the liquid 
can be applied with a brush. The magnet 
should be warmed before applying. 

Red Oxide o! Iron Paints 

1. — Bright Red Paint. — Pure bright red 
oxide, 336 lb. ; common barytes, 112 lb. ; 
China clay, 112 lb. ; whiting 112 lb. ; raw 
linseed oil, 9 gal. 

2.— Specialty Red Oxide Paint for Gas- 
ometers, etc, — Red oxide, 392 lb. ; barytes, 
784 lb. ; whiting, 84 lb. ; boiled linseed oil, 
112 lb. ; raw oil, 224 lb. ; varnish bottoms, 
58 lb. ; turpentine, 42 lb. ; driers, 224 lb. 

3. — Turkey Red Paint. — Pure bright 
red oxide, 448 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 10 gal. 
A little varnish foots should also be used. 
Note. — A turkey red (dry) must be a 
very fine, bright, strong pigment, better 
than a super- Venetian red. 

Stacks, Paint for 

1. — Dissolve asphaltum in turpentine 
with the application of a gentle heat. Use 
when cold. Apply with a brush. 

2. — Paint the stack with thin coal tar 
mixed with finely ground plumbago. 
Make of the consistency of ordinary paint. 

Stoves, Paint for Sample 

Paint the stove with paint made of 
powdered black lead and linseed oil, and 
polish in the ordinary way when dry. It 
may be left out in all kinds of weather 
without injury to the polish. 

Water Paint 

Slake any quantity of stone lime by 
putting it in a tub and covering up to 
keep in the steam. When slaked pass 
through a fine sieve, and to each 6 qt. of 
lime add 1 qt. of rock salt in powder and 
1 gal. of water. Boil all together and 



[272] 



(Paints) 



(Size) 



skim clean. To each 5 gal. of this liquid 
add powdered alum, 1 lb. ; powdered greep 
copperas, i/^ lb. ; add very slowly pow- 
dered caustic potash, % lb. ; fine sand, 4 
lbs. Thoroughly mix together and apply 
with a brush. When dry is as durable as 
slate, and if used on brick or stone walls 
will render the latter impervious to wet. 
For buff use 1 lb. of Oxford ocher to 1 
gal. of liquid. For stone use % lb. of 
ocher to 1 gal. of liquid. 

Silicate of Soda Water Paint.— The fol- 
lowing process will yield good results and 
will give a paint which may be used as a 
water or oil paint by thinning with water, 
or in the ordinary manner by the use ot 
linseed or boiled oil, or it may be mixed 
ready for use by the addition of the sili- 
cate oil substitute. With the exception 
of blues of the Prussian class, Brunswick 
greens, and, to some extent, chromes, all 
colors may be ground with this oil substi- 
tute. 

Liquid. — 1. — Silicate of soda, 45° 
Beaume, 112 lb. ; pale rosin, 28 lb. ; 
water, 20 gal. 

2. — Silicate of soda, 45" Beaume, 112 
lb. ; black rosin, 28 lb. ; water, 20 gal. 
Process : Boil the water and silicate of 
soda together, and, while boiling, sift in 
the rosin, which should be coarsely pow- 
dered, stirring all the while. Boil till the 
rosin is dissolved, then strain through 
coarse canvas. 

Waterproof Water Paint 

A waterproof paint may be made by 
dissolving in 2 qt. of water 1 lb. brown 
soap and then adding 6 qt. boiled oil and 
1 oz. vitriol. After removing from the 
fire, add 2 qt. turpentine with any color 
it is desired to mix with it. Strain well 
and thin with turpentine. 

Black Waterproof Paint. — Carbon 
black, 10 lb.; Paris white, 90 lb.; 
barytes, 60 lb. ; litharge, 21 lb. ; white 
lead, 21 lb. ; soft soap, 17 lb. ; boiled oil, 
10 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 10 lb. ; water, 100 
lb. May also contain varnish. 

Elastic Waterproof Paint. — 1. — There 
are a large number of mixtures used as 
bases for these paints, but it depends 
really upon the ultimate or special use of 
the paint when deciding upon a medium. 
The following makes suitable application 
for horse, rick and sail cloths, tents, shop 
blinds, etc. It will dry fairly quickly and 
the coating will prove efficient for quite a 
considerable period, but two or even three 
coats should be laid on, and then the re- 
sistance to wet will endure as long as the 
fabric of the sheet itself. Any other color 
would be produced by substituting the 
pigment desired for that in the recipe. 



2. — Black. — Boiled oil, 5 gal. ; turps, 
4 gal. ; bone black, 17 lb. ; yellow soap, 
21^ lb. ; Chinese blue, 1 lb. 

Zinc 

To Prepare or Painting. — Dissolve 1 
part of chloride of copper, 1 part of ni- 
trate of copper and 1 part of sal am- 
moniac in 64 parts of water and add 1 
part of commercial hydrochloric acid. 
Brush the zinc over with this, which gives 
it a deep black. Leave to dry 24 hours, 
when any oil color will firmly adhere to 
it, and withstand both heat and damp. 

To Protect Roofing from Rust. — Zinc 
sheets for roofing can easily be protected 
against rust by the following simple 
process : Clean the plates by immersing 
them in water to which 5% of sulphuric 
acid has been added, then wash with pure 
water, allow to dry and coat with asphalt 
varnish. Asphalt varnish is prepared by 
dissolving 1 to 2 parts asphalt in 10 parts 
benzine ; the solution should be poured 
evenly over the plates and the latter 
placed in an upright position to dry. 
SIZE 

Gold Size. — 1. — (Oil Size). — Drying or 
boiled oil thickened with yellow ocher or 
calcined red ocher, and carefully reduced 
to the utmost smoothness by grinding. It 
is thinned with oil of turpentine. Im- 
proves by age. Used for oil gilding. 

2. — (Water Size). — Parchment or isin- 
glass size mixed with finely ground yel- 
low ocher. Used in burnished or distem- 
per gilding. 

3. — Place boiled oil in a stone pot and 
place on a gentle fire, and allow the heat 
to rise almost to the point of ignition, 
then set fire to it, and let it burn until it 
is thick, then put on the cover to extin- 
guish the flames. Now strain through silk 
and thin with turpentine. 

4. — The following is highly recommend- 
ed : Heat slowly 8 oz. best drying oil and 
just before it comes to a boil add 2 oz. 
gum animi, boil until of the consistency 
of tar, then strain through silk. A little 
finely ground vermilion may be added if 
desired ; thin with turpentine. Dilute 
with oil ♦f turpentine. 

5. — Gold size, is prepared from % lb. 
linseed oil with 2 oz. gum animi ; the lat- 
ter is reduced to powder and gradually 
added to the oil while being heated in a 
flask, stirring it after every addition until 
the whole is dissolved ; th« mixture is 
boiled until a small quantity, when taken 
out, is somewhat thicker than tar, and the 
whole is strained through a coarse cloth. 
When used, it must be ground with as 
much vermilion as will render it opaque, 
and at the same time be diluted with oil 



[273] 



(Varnishes) 



(Viarnishes) 



of turpentine, so as to make it work freely 
with the pencil. 

6.— Black Gold Size.— Triturate 1 oz. 
gold size with enough lampblack to form 
a dense color. Thin with turpentine. 

7. — Japanners' Gold Size. — Lead ace- 
tate % lb. ; gum animi, 4 lb. ; turpentine, 
1% gal.; drying oil, 1 gal. Boil the gum 
in the oil for 4 hours, add the other ma- 
terials and strain. 

VARNISHES 



What Varnishes Are Made of 

Varnish is a solution of resinous mat- 
ter forming a clear, limpid fluid, capable 
of hardening without losing its transpar- 
ency. It is used to give a shining trans- 
parent, hard and preservative covering to 
the finished surface of woodwork, capable 
of resisting in a greater or less degree 
the influence of the air and moisture. 
This coating, when applied to metal or 
mineral surfaces, takes the name of lac- 
quer, and must be prepared from rosins 
at once more adhesive and tenacious than 
those entering into varnish. 

The rosins, commonly called gums, ap- 
propriate to varnish are of two kinds — 
the hard and the soft. The hard varie- 
ties are copal, amber and the lac rosins. 
The dry, soft rosins are juniper gum 
(commonly called sandarac), mastic and 
dammar. The elastic soft rosins are ben- 
zoin, elemi, anime and turpentine. The 
science of preparing varnish consists in 
combining these classes of rosins in a 
suitable solvent, so that each conveys its 
good qualities and counteracts the bad 
ones of the others, and in giving the de- 
sired color to this solution without af- 
fecting the suspension of the rosins, or 
detracting from the drying and hardening 
properties of the varnish. 

Spirit vs. Oil Varnishes. — In spirit var- 
nish (that made with alcohol) the hard 
and the elastic gums must be mixed to 
insure tenderness and solidity, as the al- 
cohol evaporates at once after applying, 
leaving the varnish wholly dependent on 
the gums for the tenacious and adhesive 
properties ; and if the soft rosins predom- 
inate, the varnish will remain "tacky" for 
a long time. Spirit varnish, however good 
and convenient to work with, must always 
be inferior to oil varnish, as the latter is 
at the same time more tender and more 
solid, for the oil, in oxidizing and evapo- 
rating, thickens, and forms rosin, which 
continues its softening and binding pres- 
ence, whereas in a spirit varnish the al- 
cohol is promptly dissipated, and leaves 
the gums on the surface of the work in 
a more or less granular and brittle pre- 

r 274 ] 



cipitate, which chips readily and peels 

ofle. 

Varnish must be tender, and, in a man- 
ner, soft. It must yield to the movements 
of the wood in expanding or contracting 
with the heat or cold, and must not in- 
close the wood like a sheet of glass. This 
is why oil varnish is superior to spirit 
varnish. To obtain this suppleness the 
gums must be dissolved in some liquid not 
highly volatile like spirit, but one which 
mixes with them in substance permanent- 
ly to counteract their extreme friability. 
Such solvents are the oil of lavender, 
spike, rosemary and turpentine, combined 
with linseed oil. The vehicle in which 
the rosins are dissolved must be and re- 
main soft, so as to keep soft the rosins 
which are, of themselves, naturally hard. 
Any varnish from which the solvent has 
been completely dried out must, of ne- 
cessity, become hard and glassy, and chip 
off. But, on the other hand, if the var- 
nish remains too soft and "tacky," it 
will "cake" in time, and destroy the effect 
desired. 

In estimating the quality of a varnish 
the following points must be considered : 
1, quickness in drying ; 2, hardness of 
film or coating ; 3, toughness of film ; 4, 
amount of gloss ; 5, permanence of gloss 
of film ; 6, durability on exposure to 
weather. 

Ingredients. — Driers are generally add- 
ed to varnish in the form of litharge, 
sugar of lead, or white copperas. Sugar 
of lead not only hardens, but combines 
with the varnish. A large proportion of 
driers injures the durability of the var- 
nish, though it causes it to dry more 
quickly. 

1. — For Body and Luster. — ^Amber, 
anime, copal, elemi, mastic, sandarac. 

2. — For Odor.— Benzoin. 

3.— For Tinctorial Effect.— a.— Color- 
ing matters soluble in water and alcohol : 
Magenta, cardinal, erythrosine, safranine, 
methylene blue, picric acid, curcumine, 
metanil yellow, Hofmann violet, malachite 
green, Bismarck brown, acid magenta, 
cerise, rose bengal, coccine, peacock blue, 
naphthol yellow, brilliant yellow, methyl 
orange, regina purple, brilliant green, ve- 
suvine, rubin, methyl eosine, phloxine, 
navy blue, phosphine, auramine, chrysoi- 
dine, methyl violet, acid mauve, iodine 
green, crimson, eosine, coralline, benzyl 
blue, aurantia, chrysophenine, mandarin, 
acid violet, methyl green. 

b. — Coloring matters soluble in water 
only : Congo, con^o corinth, brilliant 
Congo, benzopurpurine, delta purpurine, 
rosea zurine, Hessian purple, fast red, 
archil red, ponceau, scarlet, azo-rubine. 



( V arnisnes ) 



(Varnishes) 



heliotrope, brilliant blue, wool blue, black 
blue, benzoazurine, azo-blue, Guernsey 
blue, Hessian blue, water blue. Bavarian 
blue, Gapri blue, alkali blue, China blue, 
regina violet, azo-violet, fast brown, acid 
brown, resorcin brown, guinea green, ani- 
line gray, nigrosine, silver gray, wool 
black, nacarat, brilliant scarlet, acid yel- 
low, resorcin yellow, qulnoline yellow, 
azo-acid yellor/, naphthol yellow, chrysa- 
mine, Hessian yellow, curcumine, orange, 
methly orange, rusin S. 

c. — Coloring matters, soluble in alcohol 
only: Rosaniline base, nigrosine spirit 
(soluble), Humboldt blue, aurine, mala- 
chite green base, new violet, Soudan, 
brilliant black, auramine base, spirit blue, 
induline spirit (soluble). 

(3, — Colors soluble in oil: Rosanilme 
base, magenta base, oil yellow, butter yel- 
low, violet base, auramiue base, oil violet, 
oil brown, Soudan I, picric acid, oil or- 
ange, oil scarlet, Soudan II, oil green, 
oil crimson. 

Practically none of th3 coal-tar colors 
are soluble in petroleum spirit, turpen- 
tine or benzol. While, therefore, tne coai- 
tar colors are available for coloring wa- 
ter — and spirit — varnishes, but few of 
them are useful for coloring oil varnishes, 
and none for coloring varnishes made 
from turpentine, petroleum spirit, or ben- 
zol. 

4. — For Olor and Body. — Asphaltum. 

5. — For Toughness and Elasticity. — 
Caoutchouc. 

Manufacturing Hints — Glass, coarsely 
powdered, is often added to varnish when 
mixed in large quantities, for the pur- 
pose of cutting the rosins and preventing 
them from adhering to the bottom and 
sides of the container. When possible, 
varnish should always be compounded 
without the use of heat, as this carbon- 
izes and otherwise changes the constitu- 
ents, and, besides, danger always ensues 
from the higbV inflammable nature of 
the material ei^ployed. However, when 
heat is necessary, a water bath should 
always be used ; the varnish should never 
fill the vessel over a half to three-quar- 
ters of its capacity. 

The Gums Used in B i ing Varnish. — 

Juniper gum, or true sandarac, comes in 

long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires 

i high temperature for its manipulation 

..1 oil. The oil must be so hot as to 

eorch a feather dipped into it, before this 

um is added ; otherwise, the gum is 

•urnt. Because of this, juniper gum is 

isually displaced in oil varnish by gum 

lammar. Both these gums, by their 

Iryness, counteract the elasticity of oil 



as well as other gums. The usual san- 
darac of commerce is a brittle, yellow, 
transparent rosin from Africa, more sol- 
uble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its 
excess renders varnish hard and brittle. 
Commercial sandarac is also often a mix- 
ture of the African rosin with dammar 
or hard Indian copal, the place of the 
African rosin being sometimes taken by 
the true juniper gum. This mixture is 
the pounce of the shops, and is almost in- 
soluble in alcohol or turpentine. Dammar 
also largely takes the place of tender co- 
pal, gum anime, white amber, white in- 
cense and white rosin. The latter three 
names are also often applied to a mixture 
of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used 
in varnish. When gum dammar is used 
as the main rosin in a varnish it should 
be first fused and brought to a boiling 
point, but not thawed. This eliminates 
the property that renders dammar var- 
nish soft and "tacky," if not treated as 
above. Venetian turpentine has a ten- 
dency to render varnish "tacky," and 
must be skilfully counteracted if this ef- 
fect is to be avoided. Benzoin in varnish 
exposed to any degree of dampness has 
a tendency to swell, and must, in such 
cases, be avoided, Elemi, a fragrant rosin 
from Egypt, in time grows hard and brit- 
tle, and is not so soluble in alcohol as 
anime, which is highly esteemed for its 
more tender qualities. Copal is a name 
given rather indiscriminately to various 
gums and rosins. The East Indian or 
African is the tender copal, and is softer 
and more transparent than the other va- 
rieties ; when pure, it is freely soluble 
in oil of turpentine or rosemary. Hard 
copal comes in its best form from Mex- 
ico, and is not readily soluble in oil un- 
less first fused. The brilliant, deep-red 
color of old varnish is said to be based 
on dragon's blood, but not the kind that 
comes in sticks, cones, etc. (which is 
ah/ays adulterated), but the clear, pure 
tear, deeper in color than a carbuncle, and 
as crystal fiery as a ruby. This is sel- 
dom seen in the market, as is also the 
tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the 
tear of dragon's blood, is said to be the 
bisis of the brilliant orange and gold 
varnish of the ancients. 

Amber Varnish 

Amber varnish is suited for all pur- 
poses, where a very hard and durable oil 
varnish is required. The paler kind is 
superior to copal varnish, and is often 
mixed with the latter to increase its hard- 
ness and durability. 

1. — Hard. — Melted amber, 4 oz. ; hot, 
boiled oil, 1 qt. 



r 275 ] 



( Varnishes > 



(Varnislies) 



2. — Pale. — Very pale and transparent 
amber, 4 oz. ; clarified linseed oil and oil 
of turpentine, o£ each 1 pt. 

3. — Amber and Elemi Lacquer. — ^Am- 
ber, 4 parts; elemi, 1 part; Venice tur- 
pentine, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 12 
parts. This makes a very beautiful and 
lasting lacquer. 

Aniline Varnishes 

1. — These are very useful, as the color 
is intense, even when in a very thin film. 
Use alcohol to dissolve the shellac or 
sandarac. Prepare also an alcoholic so- 
lution of the aniline colors; add this to 
the varnish. Warm the object slightly. 

2. — Collodion can also be used to carry 
the aniline colors, and gives a very thin 
coating. 
Asphalt Varnish 

Boil coal tar until it shows a dis- 
position to harden on cooling ; this can 
be ascertained by rubbing a little on a 
piece of metal. Then add about 20% of 
lump asphalt, stirring it with the boiling 
coal tar until all the lumps are melted, 
when it can be allowed to cool and kept 
for use. This makes a very bright var- 
nish for sheet metals, and is cheap and 
durable. 

Balloon Varnish 

Carl E. Myers, the aeronaut, gives the 
following exclusive information, which is 
copyright, 1908, by Munn & Co. : 

1. — The matter of balloon varnish seems 
to be giving a lot of trouble. It always 
has, more or less, as commercial varnish 
manufacturers do not make balloon var- 
nishes, and none of the ordinary varnishes 
serve well for balloons. What is wanted 
is an elastic, non-adhesive and enduring 
varnish, that will not heat or spontane- 
ously decompose. Pure boiled linseed oil 
comes the nearest to these requirements. 
The difficulty is in getting it pure, to 
begin with, and keeping it unmixed with 
oxides or dryers when boiled. Any such 
admixtures lay the seeds of destruction, 
for oxidizing, if once started, is kept up 
continuously till the mass is rusted or 
rotted finally, and the fabric made brit- 
tle or sticky, and soon useless. Balloon 
varnish is not a matter of formula or 
recipe, but a process or system of prepa- 
ration, and thus requires experience, judg- 
ment, and, to some extent, courage, as it 
is more or less dangerous to produce good 
linseed-oil varnish cooked at a high tem- 
perature. I have known one large var- 
nish factory to be entirely destroyed in at- 
tempting to make balloon varnish, and 
I have seen over a hundred conflagrations 



of ^ more or less magnitude result from 
boiling oil to make baUoon varnish. I 
only make balloon varnish once a year, 
in considerable quantities, requiring weeks 
with special apparatus, on a manufactur- 
ing scale, and I aim to keep a year's sup- 
ply on hand, and use the oldest and best. 
My varnishing is done by patent machin- 
ery, permitting the use of pure linseed-oil 
varnish too thick to spread by hand 
brushes. One thousand yards of surface 
require about an hour's work, all super- 
ficial varnish being removed by the ma- 
chines, after which the fabric is dried 
spontaneously in the hot sun, without ox- 
idizing driers. This process is repeated 
several times till 7 to 9 films are super- 
imposed, with increased thickness, ap- 
preciable by a micrometer caliper after 
the first coat is applied. The microscopic 
pores in each film do not coincide, or are 
plugged up, resulting in a practically hy- 
drogen-proof fabric, of ligho weight and 
thickness, which can be folded or rolled 
repeatedly without fracture of the films 
at ordinary temperature, and which never 
decomposes or sticks or becomes rotten 
when packed. I have tried very many 
preparations, and found them mostly un- 
suitable for continued usefulness. The 
best of these include good boiled linseed 
oil as a basis, thinned with best spirits 
of turpentine or stove gasolene, for use 
with hard brushes. Driers to be used are 
chiefly litharge or "japan" and chrome 
yellow. "Birdlime" and rubber are some- 
times mixed in small quantities with lin- 
seed-oil varnish, and are of doubtful 
value. Raw or half-boiled linseed oil will 
never make other than a sticky coat, ne- 
cessitating frequent dusting with talc 
chalk, or other similar preparations, and 
will inevitably ruin any balloon coated 
with it. While almost any varnish, in 
repeated layers, will serve to hold gas 
temporarily, or for immediate use, on a 
balloon, such vessels are short-lived, heav- 
ier than desirable, and not satisfactory 
for airships or vessels required to hold hy- 
drogen for a long time. 

Black Varnish 

1. — Shellac, ^ T)irts; rosin, 5 parts; 
lampblack, 1 pai.. ilcohol, 94%, 32 parts 
If a dead black be required, use the same 
proportion of ingredients, with oil of tur^ 
pentine as the solvent. 

2. — In an iron pot, over a slow fire, 
boil 45 lb. of foreign asphaltum for^ at 
least 6 hours, and during the same time 
boil in another iron pot 6 gal. of oil which 
has been previoufily boiled ; during the 
boilincr of the 6 gal. introduce 6^ lb. of 
litharge gradually, and boil until it feels 



[276] 



(Varnishes) 



(Varnishes) 



stringy between the fingers; then ladle it 
into the pot containing the boiling as- 
phaltum. Let both boil until, upon trial, 
it will roll into hard pills; then cool, 
and mix with 25 gal. of turpentine, or 
until it is of proper consistency. 

3. — Black varnish suitable for covering 
places where a japanned surface has been 
injured or scratched : Fine lampblack or 
ivory black, thoroughly mixed with copal 
varnish. The black must be in fine pow- 
der, and it would mix the more readily 
if made into a pasty mass with turpen- 
tine. 

4. — Black varnish can be made by put- 
ting 48 lb. of foreign asphaltum into an 
iron pot and boiling for 4 hours ; dur- 
ing the first 2 hours introduce 7 lb. of 
red lead, 7 lb. of litharge, 3 lb. of dried 
copperas and 10 gal. of boiled oil ; add 
one 8-lb. run of dark gum with 2 gal. of 
hot oil. After pouring the oil and gum 
continue the boiling 2 hours, or until it 
will roll into hard pills like japan. When 
cool, thin it off with 30 gal. of turpen- 
tine, or until it is of proper consistency. 
This varnish is specially adapted for iron- 
work. 

Body Varnish 

1. — Finest African copal, 8 lb.; fuse 
carefully, add clarified oil, 2 gal.; boil 
gently for 4^^ hours, or till quite stringy, 
cool a little, and thin with oil of turpen- 
tine, 3% gal. Dries slowly. 

2. — Pale gum copal, 8 lb. ; clarified oil, 
2 gal. ; dried sugar of lead % lb. ; boil as 
before, then add oil of turpentine, 3% 
gal., and mix it, while still hot, with the 
following varnish : Pale gum anime, 8 
lb. ; linseed oil, 2 gal. ; dried white cop- 
peras, 1/4 lb. ; boil as before, and thin 
with oil of turpentine, 3% gal. ; the mixed 
varnishes are to be immediately strained 
into the cans or cistern. 

Brass 

1. — Boil in alcohol, turmeric, 24 parts ; 
saffron, 5 parts. This is filtered and 
heated in a water bath, in this tincture : 
Gamboge, 24 parts ; elemi, 90 parts ; 
dragon's blood, 30 parts; alcohol, 500 
parts. 

2. — Black Letters for Brass Signs. — 
A formula for a black japan adapted to 
the purpose is as follows : Asphaltum, 
8^ oz. ; dark gum anime, % oz. ; linseed 
oil, 18 oz. ; dark gum amber, 1% oz. ; tur- 
pentine spirit, 2y2 pt. Fuse together the 
asphaltum and gum anime, and add 15 
oz. of the linseed oil. Boil the amber, 
previously fused with 3 oz. of the linseed 
oil, and add to the mixture. Continue 
the boiling until a little of the mass, when 



cooled, is plastic ; then withdraw the heat 
and add the turpentine. The enamel proc- 
ess is altogether different, and consists 
in fusing on the brass a kind of glass, 
which, when cool, adheres to the metal. 
The preparation of the enamel involves 
special skill, and its application is also a 
matter not likely to be within the reach 
of the amateur. 

Caseine Varnish 

According to Ammundsen, this is pre- 
pared as follows: Caseine, 100 parts; 
10% solution of soap, 10 to 25 parts; 
slaked lime, 20 to 25 parts ; oil of turpen- 
tine, 25 to 40 parts; water, sufficient. 
Mix the caseine with the soap solution ; 
add the lime, and rub up to a homogene- 
ous mixture. Now add the turpentine 
gradually, and with constant strring. 
Add water to attain the desired consist- 
ency. The addition of a little ammonia 
water tends to aid this preparation in 
keeping. This is a very cheap and excel- 
lent varnish. 

Celluloid Varnishes 

1. — Celluloid, 5 parts; sulphuric ether, 
16 parts ; acetone 16 parts ; amyl acetate, 
16 parts. Mix and dissolve. 

2. — Celluloid, 10 parts; camphor, 4 
parts ; sulphuric ether, 30 parts ; acetone, 
30 parts; amyl acetate, 30 gr. Mix and 
dissolve. 

3. — Celluloid, 5 parts; camphor, 5 
parts; alcohol, 50 parts. Mix and dis- 
solve. 

4. — Celluloid, 5 parts ; amyl acetate, 5 
parts. Mix. 

5. — Celluloid, 5 parts; acetone, 25 
parts; amyl acetate, 25 parts. Mix and 
dissolve. The ingredients of the above 
five formulas are inflammnble. 

Chimneys and Stove fipes, Varnish 
for 

Asphaltum, 2 lb.; boiled linseed oil, 1 
pt. ; oil of turpentine, 2 qt. Fuse the 
asphaltum in an iron pot, boil the lin- 
seed oil, and add while hot. Stir well, 
and remove from the fire. When partially 
cooled add the oil of turpentine. 

Coal Buckets, Black Varnish for 

Asphaltum, 1^^ lb. ; lampblack. % lb. ; 
rosin, % lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1^^ 
qt. Dissolve the rosin and asphaltum in 
the turpentine ; form a paste with the 
lampblack and linseed oil, q. s. ; mix with 
the other. Apply with a brush. 

Collodion 

1. — Add 1 oz. of castor oil to 1 qt. of 
collodion. This is a very useful vamuih 
for varnishing maps, etc. 



[277] 



(Varnishes) 



(Varnishes) 



2. — Hale's formula is as follows : Amyl 
acetate, 4 gal. ; benzine ( coal naphtha ) , 
4 gal. ; acetone, 2 gal. ; pyroxyline, 2^ lb. 
The different ingredients are mixed and 
the pyroxyline dissolved therein. The 
metal article, having its surface polished 
and made free from water and grease by 
any ordinary or suitable means, is, or may 
be, dipped into a solution made accord- 
ing to either of the formulae, and on re- 
moval therefrom suspended in a chamber 
out of the draught till the adhering coat 
or film dries or hardens, which takes place 
in about 15 or 20 minutes. The drying 
may be hastened by artificial heat, and 
while the use of the^ heat at any stage of 
the process is not inconsistent with the 
invention, yet it is preferred to operate 
in the cold — that is, at ordinary tempera- 
tures. In damp weather the coating 
should be dried at a temperature of, say, 
100 to 105° F. The varnish or solution 
may also be applied by brushing. The 
coated articles, when the coatings are 
dry, have their metal surfaces provided 
with a substantial, even, hard, thin, 
smooth, impervious and transparent film 
of pyroxyline of sufficient tenacity, ad- 
hesion and durability practically to resist 
the handling and exposure to which lac- 
quered articles in general are subjected. 

Copal Varnish 

1. — Turpentine. — Oil of turpentine, 1 
pt. ; set the bottle in a water bath, and 
add, in small portions at a time, 3 oz. 
of powdered copal that has been previous- 
ly melted by a gentle heat, and dropped 
into water ; in a few days decant the 
clear. Dries slowly, but is very pale and 
durable. Used for pictures, etc, 

2.— Oil.— Pale and hard copal, 2 lb.; 
fuse, add hot drying oil, 1 pt. ; boil as 
before directed, and thin with oil of tur- 
pentine, 3 pt., 12 oz. ; or q. s. 

3. — Clearest and palest African copal, 
8 lb. ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil, 
2 gal. ; boil till it strings strongly, cool 
a little, and thin with hot rectified oil of 
turpentine, 3 gal., and immediately strain 
into the store can. Very fine. Both the 
above are used for pictures. 

4. — Spirit. — Coarsely powdered copal 
and glass, of each 4 oz. ; 90% alcohol, 1 
pt. ; camphor, % oz. ; heat in a water 
bath, so that the bubbles may be counted 
as they rise, observing frequently to stir 
the mixture; when cold decant the clear. 
Used for pictures. 

5. — Copal Varnish with Ammonia. — 
Grind copal to a coarse powder, and pour 
ammonia over it until the whole mass is 
swelled up. Heat this to about 100° F., 



then add alcohol until the mixture is of 
the desired consistency. 

6. — Camphorated Copal Varnish. — Take 
powdered copal, 4 oz. ; essential on or 
lavender, 12 oz. ; camphor, ^4 oz. ; and as 
much spirit of turpentine as will produce 
the required consistency. Heat the oil 
and the camphor in a small matrass, stir- 
ring them, and putting in the copal and 
turpentine in the same manner as for 
gold-colored copal varnish. 

7. — Elastic. — Gum camphor, 60 parts; 
copal, 250 parts ; ether, 700 parts. Keep 
in a bottle with a ground-glass stopper; 
use the upper portion, which will become 
clear after a few days, or possibly weeks. 
This sediment has a new portion of tne 
mixed substance added, the ether being 
in excess, only % as much camphor and 
copal being added. 

Dammar 1 urpentme Varnishes 

1. — Gum dammar is a soft copal, and 
possesses the property of solubility in 
nearly every solvent, including turpentine 
and methylated spirit. It varies in color 
from yellow to nearly water-white, and 
should be carefully selected according to 
the grade of varnish it is desired to make. 
Dammar varnishes are chiefly used as 
paper varnishes (the best quality being 
termed crystal paper varnishes), and as 
varnishes for enamels. 

2. — Turpentine, 160 fl.oz. ; gum dam- 
mar, 80 oz. ; sandarac rosin, 40 oz. ; mas- 
tic rosin, 8 oz. 

Dead Surface Varnish 

Varnishes that leave a dead surface on 
drying, capable of substitution for ground 
glass, as for glass stereographs, and of 
use in retouching negatives, may be made 
by mixing solutions of rosin with liquids 
in which they are insoluble. A solution 
of sandarac rosin in ether, when mixed 
with % as much benzole, affords an ex- 
cellent imitation of ground glass; one 
of dammar rosin in benzole, when mixed 
with ether, also gives a good dead surface ; 
water instead of ether renders it, at 
the same time, semi-opaque. A mixture 
of benzole with common negative varnish 
frequently, but not always, gives a beauti- 
ful dead surface. In all cases a great 
deal depends on the purity of the ingredi- 
ents. It is recommended to dissolve from 
3 to 5 parts of sandarac in 48 parts of 
ether, and to add 24 parts of benzole; or 
as much as may be necessary to produce 
the desired result. The following, by 
Hughes, is said to give perfectly color- 
less varnish of this kind : Ether, 560 
gr. ; benzole, 240 er. ; sandarac, 40 gr. ; 
Canada balsam, 10 gr. The rosins are 



[278] 



(Varnishes) 



(Varnishes) 



first to be dissolved in the ether, and the 
benzole added to the solution. 

Electrical Varnish 

A varnish formed by dissolving orange 
shellac in 95% alcohol is indispensable for 
all kinds of electrical work, and for fin- 
ishing wood and metal work. It may be 
readily colored by the addition of pig- 
ments. For brown, the red and black 
may be mixed; for purple, the red and 
blue; for yellow, finely powdered yellow 
ocher or chrome yellow may be added ; for 
a dead black varnish, alcohol, with a 
small percentage of shellac varnish added, 
mixed with calcined lampblack, answers 
an excellent purpose. 

Ether Varnish 

Take 1 oz. of amber-colored copal, finely 
powdered, and place it in a flask contain- 
ing 4 oz. of ether; cork the flask with 
a glass stopper, and shake it for half 
an hour. Let it rest until the liquor be- 
comes perfectly clear. 
Fatty Varnish, for Painters 

Sandarac, 120 grams; mastic 30 
grams ; Venetian turpentine, 6 grams ; 
boiled linseed oil, or poppy oil, 750 
grams ; spirits of turpentine, 90 grams. 

Flexible Varnish 

1, — India-rubber, cut small, l^^ oz. ; 
chloroform, ether, or carbon bisulphide, 
20 fl.oz. ; digest without heat until the 
solution is complete. 

2. — Same, only substituting gutta per- 
cha for india-rubber. 

3. — Dissolve 1 oz. of india-rubber in 1 
pt. of benzole by digesting with gentle 
heat. This varnish dries badly. 

Guns 

Barrels. — 1. — Shellac, li/^ oz. ; dragon's 
blood, 3 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 qt. Apply 
after the barrels are browned. 

2. — Stocks. — Shellac, 5 oz. ; sandarac, 
% oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 dr. ; alcohol, 
2 qt. 

Gutta Percha Varnish 

Clean i/4 lb. of gutta percha in warm 
water from adhering impurities, dry well, 
dissolve in 1 lb. of rectified rosin oil, and 
add 2 lb. of linseed-oil varnish, boiling 
hot. 

India Rubber Varnish 

1. — India-rubber, finely divided, 2 oz., 
placed in a phial, and digested in a sand 
bath, with ^4 lb. of camphene and 1/4 oz. 
of naphtha. When dissolved, add 1 oz. of 
copal varnish, which renders it more dur- 
able. 



2. — Digest in a wide-mouthed glass bot- 
tle 2 oz. of India rubber in shavings, with 
1 lb. of oil of turpentine, during 2 days, 
without shaking ; then stir up with a 
wooden spatula. Add another pound of 
oil of turpentine, and digest, with fre- 
quent agitation, until all is dissolved. Mix 
1% lb. of this solution with 2 lb. of white 
copal-oil varnish, and li/^ lb. of boiled 
linseed oil ; shake, and digest in a sand 
bath until they have united into a good 
varnish. 

Inflexible 

Shellac, 4 oz. ; wood naphtha, 1 pt. ; 
lampblack, q. s. to color ; dissolve. 

Insulating Varnishes 

For Earth Cables and Exposed Strong 
Current Wires. — 1. — Melt 2 parts of as- 
phalt together with 0.4 part of sulphur ; 
add 5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, linseed 
oil or cotton-seend oil, keep at 160° C. for 
6 hours ; next pour in oil of turpentine 
as required. 

2. — Mix 3 parts of elaterite with 2 
parts of linseed-oil varnish at 200° C. 
for 5 to 6 hours ; next, melt 3 parts of 
asphalt, pour both substances together, 
and again maintain the temperature of 
200° C. for 3 or 4 hours, and then add 

1 part of linseed-oil varnish and oil of 
turpentine, as required. 

Dynamos and (Conduits with Low Ten- 
sion. — a. — Shellac, 4 parts ; sandarac, 2 
parts ; linoleic acid, 2 parts ; alcohol, 15 
parts. 

b. — Shellac, 4 parts ; sandarac, 4 parts ; 
elemi, 1 part ; alcohol, 20 parts. 

Shellac Varnish (Used by Large Elec- 
trical Works).— a. — Shellac, 100 lb.; 
methylated spirit, 40 gal. Contains no 
auramine or oxalic, but may contain acid 
brown or Bismarck brown. 

b.— Extra Stout.— Shellac, 84 lb.; 
methylated spirit, 12 gal. Auramine and 
oxalic acid. Makes 19 gal. 

Iron and Steel 

1. — Dissolve in alcohol : Mastic, 10 
parts ; camphor, 5 parts ; sandarac, 15 
parts ; elemi, 5 parts. Apply cold. 

2. — Iron Work. — a. — Dissolve in about 

2 lb. tar oil, % lb. asphaltum, and a like 
quantity of pounded rosin, mix hot in an 
iron kettle, care being taken to prevent 
any contact with the flame. When cold 
the varnish is ready for use. This var- 
nish is for outdoor wood and iron work. 

b. — Black Varnish. — Boil sulphur in 
turpentine, apply with a brush and after 
heating, the iron becomes of an intense 
' and brilliant black. 



[279] 



(Varnishes) 



(Varnishes) 



c. — ^Sheet Iron. — Melted colophony, 60 
gr. ; amber, 90 gr. After fusion and cool- 
ing, add : Spirits of turpentine, 45 gr. ; 
painters' varnish, 45 gr. If the varnish 
is too thick, dilute it with essence. 

3. — Preservative Varnish for Iron 
Work. — a. — Common rosin, 56 lb. ; gutta 
percha, 2 lb. ; dried sulphate of zinc, 2 
lb. ; mineral naphtha, 8 gal. Sweat the 
rosin and gutta percha together, then 
sprinkle in the sulphate of zinc, cool to 
130° F., and add the naphtha. 

b. — (Also used as a first coating for 
ships' bottoms, previous to the application 
of anti-fouling compositions.) — Common 
rosin, 112 lb. ; gutta percha, 8 lb. ; stear- 
ate of zinc, 8 lb. ; mineral naphtha*, 24 
gal. ( * ) This may be coal tar naphtha or 
benzine. 

c. — Stearate of Zinc (used in above). 
— White curd soap, 28 lb. ; sulphate of 
zinc, 8 lb. Process. — Dissolve the sul- 
phate of zinc and soap separately in boil- 
ing water. Mix together while boiling, 
dry and fuse stearate for use. 

4. — Smiths, Locksmiths and Iron 
Founders. — a. — Heat 200 parts by weight 
of pine oil and dissolve in it 25 parts of 
Syrian asphalt and 25 parts of rosin, 
previously crushed a little. When cool, 
pour the varnish into a bottle and keep. 
When heating the pine oil, be careful 
that the vapors do not come into con- 
tact with the fire or the oil will ignite. 

b. — Brown Varnish for Locksmiths' 
Goods. — Such a varnish for bright goods 
to be dried in the stove is prepared as 
follows : Heat 10 parts of Syrian or 
Gisonite asphalt, 30 parts of matured lin- 
seed oil, 2 parts of red lead, and 2 parts 
of litharge until the mixture draws 
threads, let cool, land stir 30 parts of oil 
turpentine into it. 

Japan Varnish, Black 

Naples asphaltum, 50 lb. ; dark gum 
arable, 8 lb. Fuse, add 12 gal. linseed 
oil ; boil, then add of dark gum amber, 
10 lb., previously fused and boiled in 2 
gal. linseed oil ; next add q. s. of driers 
and thin with oil of turpentine. 

Lac Varnish 

1. — Seed lac, 8 oz. ; alcohol, 1 qt. ; di- 
gest in a close vessel in a warm situation 
for 3 or 4 days, then decant and strain. 
Highly recommended. 

2. — Substitute lac bleached by chlorine 
for seed lac. Both are very tough, hard 
and durable, the last almost colorless. 
Used for pictures, metal, wood or leather. 

3. — Lac Water Varnish. — Pale shellac, 
5 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pt. Digest 
at nearly the boiling point till dissolved, 



then strain. An excellent vehicle for 
water colors, inks, etc., and a varnish for 
prints is made thus of bleached lac. 
When dry, it is transparent and water- 
proof. 

Leather Paints and Varnishes 

1. — Shellac, 1 part; turpentine, 5 
parts ; prepared spirit, 15 parts. To pre- 
pare the spirit add to every 15 1. of al- 
cohol (wood) 500 gr. extract of logwood 
and 25 gr. of potassium dichromate and 
dissolve; then add the shellac and tur- 
pentine. 

2. — Ruby shellac, 30 parts; Venice 
turpentine, 1 part; sandarac, 1 part; 
castor oil, 1 part; alcohol, 150 parts; 
levelin black, 5 parts. 

3. — Rosin, 3 parts ; turpentine, 3 parts ; 
oil turpentine, 3 parts ; sandarac, 6 parts ; 
shellac, 12 parts; lampblack, 1 to 5 
parts; alcohol, 90%, 90 parts. 

4. — Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; alcohol, 
8 oz. ; nigrosine, 30 gr. ; aniline blue, 8 
gr. Dissolve the aniline colors in a little 
alcohol before adding to the other ingre- 
dients. 

5. — a. — Durable leather varnish is com- 
posed of boiled linseed oil, in which a 
drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. 
It is colored with lampblack. This var- 
nish is used for making enameled leather. 

b. — Shellac, 12 parts ; white turpentine, 
5 parts ; gum sandarac, 2 parts ; lamp- 
black, 1 part ; spirits of turpentine, 4 
parts ; alcohol, 96 parts. 

c— Dull Black.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 
parts ; shellac, 125 parts ; wax, 15 parts ; 
turpentine, 10 parts ; spirit-soluble nigro- 
sine, 10 to 15 parts. 

d. — Glossy Black, Volatile. — 1. — Alco- 
hol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 70 parts; 
turpentine, 20 parts; spirit-soluble ni- 
grosine, 1() parts. 

2.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 
90 parts ; sandarac, 15 parts ; turpentine, 
10 parts ; castor oil, 6 parts ; spirit-solu- 
ble nigrosine, 12 to 15 parts. 

3.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 parts; shellac, 
70 parts ; colophony, 30 parts ; rosin oil, 
10 parts ; turpentine, 10 parts ; spirit- 
soluble nigrosine, 10 to 15 parts. 

4.— Alcohol, 95%, 500 .parts; sheUac, 
60 parts ; sandarac, 25 parts ; colophony, 
15 parts ; turpentine, 25 parts ; turpen- 
tine oil, 15 parts ; spirit-soluble nigrosine, 
12 to 15 parts. 

Linseed Oil Varnish 

Boil linseed oil, 60 parts, with litharge, 
2 parts ; white vitriol, 1 part ; each finely 
powdered until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. Or, rub up borate of man- 
ganese, 4 parts, with some of the oil, then 



[280] 



(Varnishes) 



(Varnishes) 



add linseed oil, 3,000 parts, and heat to 
boiling. 

Machinery 

1. — Asphaltum Varnish. — First paint 
the articles in a japan color such as the 
following : Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled oil, 
4 qt. ; burned umber, 8 oz. Mix by heat, 
and when cooling, thin with turpentine. 
Then coat them with a suitable trans- 
parent or light varnish. 

2. — Agricultural Machines. — Obtainable 
in a variety of colors such as green, red, 
blue, etc., they must possess brilliant 
luster and adhere to the iron almost as 
firmly as enamel. They may be produced, 
of excellent quality, according to the fol- 
lowing recipe: In 120 parts of 95% al- 
cohol dissolve 80 parts of soft manilla 
copal, 40 parts rosin, and when the solu- 
tion is complete add 30 parts of castor 
oil. The varnish is rubbed down, in the 
prporton of 4 to 7, with any desired 
bright color. (See also Iron; Metals.) 

Metals 

1. — To make alcoholic lacquers or var- 
nishes adhere more completely to polished 
metal surfaces, 1 part boracic acid should 
be added to 200 parts of varnish. This 
composition will adhere so firmly and be- 
come so completely glazed as to be re- 
moved only with difficulty. Be careful 
not to add too much of the boracic acid, 
as it injures the gloss in that case. 

2. — Oopal, 1 part; alcohol, 2 parts. 

3. — Ck)pal, 1 part ; oil rosemary, 2 or 3 
parts; alcohol. Apply hot. 
Optical Goods and Ornamental Iron 
Work, Dead Black for. 

Dissolve seed lac in 95% alcohol q. s. 
Mixed refined lampblack with alcohol and 
add enough seed lac varnish to make the 
lampblack adhere, but not enough to give 
it a gloss. Strain through cheese cloth. 
Apply with a soft varnish brush. 

Patterns, Varnish for 

1. — Alcohol, 1 gal. ; shellac, 1 lb. Lamp 
or ivory black, sufficient to color it. 

2.— Shellac, 30 lb.; manilla copal, 10 
lb. ; and Zanzibar copal, 10 lb., are placed 
in a vessel, which is heated externally 
by steam, and stored during 4 to 6 hours, 
after which 150 parts of the finest potato 
spirit are added, and the whole heated 
during 4 hours to 87° O. This liquid is 
dyed by the addition of orange color, and 
can then be used for painting the pat- 
terns. 

Rosin Benzine Varnish 

Rosin, 250 lb. ; oxide of manganese, 7 
lb. ; benzine, 35 gal. 



Rosin Turpentine Varnish 

Dark rosin, 100 lb. ; turps, 8 gal. Put 
100 lb. dark rosin in pot, add turps with 
it. Put on slow fire until all the rosin 
has melted ; take off fire. If too stout, 
add more turps. 
Rubber, Shellac Varnish for 

1. — Powder shellac and soak in w^^^" 
stoppered bottle with 10 times its weight 
of strong ammonia. Allow it to stand 
for a number of days, when the shellac 
disappears. Sometimes several weeks are 
required to effect complete solution. If 
for use on overshoes, add a little lamp- 
black. 

2. — Rubbers. — Dissolve 1 oz. fineljr 
powdered shellac in 10 oz. of strong am- 
monia. This must be kept in a bottle 
with a ground glass stopper. After 
several days the shellac will become dis- 
solved. Apply with a rag. 

Sealing Wax Varnish 

Dissolve sealing wax of any color in 
strong alcohol. Apt to be rather brittle. 

Shellac Varnish 

1. — (a) Shellac, 60 grams; (b) alco- 
hol, 60 grams ; ( c ) castor oil, 25 grams ; 
(d) alcoholic solution of aniline dye, a 
few drops. (a) and (b) are dissolved, 
and heated until quite thick, then a lit- 
tle of (d) is added, and for every 60 
grams of the mixture add 25 grams of 
castor oil, and heat for a short time. 

2. — Harris'. — Put 1 oz. shellac into a 
wide-mouthed 8 oz, phial, containing 5 oz. 
of rectified naphtha or wood spirit. Cork 
and stand in a warm place until the gum 
is dissolved. Shake frequently and filter, 
adding more naphtha to assist the filter- 
ing, and changing the filter from time to 
time. 

3. — Imitation. — The following article 
under this name is used by furniture 
dealers : Gum sandarac, 1^ lb. ; pale 
rosin, 1% lb. ; benzine, 2 gal. Dissolve 
by gentle heat. The varnish is quick- 
drying. 

4.— White. — ^Dissolve 1 part of pearl- 
ash in about 8 parts of water ; add 1 part 
of shellac, and heat the whole to the boil- 
ing point. When the lac is dissolved, cool 
the solution, and saturate it with chlo- 
rine until the lac has all settled. When 
it is dissolved in alcohol it forms a var- 
nish which is transparent as any copal 
varnish. 

Silver 

1. — Gum elemi, 30 parts ; white amber, 
45 parts; charcoal, 30 parts; spirits of 
turpentine, 375 parts. It must be used 



[281] 



(Varnislies) 



(Varnislies) 



in a heated state, the metal to which it 
is to be applied being also heated. 

2. — Oxidized. — Alcohol, 16 parts; red 
arsenic, 8 parts ; essence lavender, 1 part. 
(Parts by weight.) 

Spirit Varnish 

Brown. — The best do not contain rosin. 
Sandarac, 3 lb. ; pale shellac, 2 lb. ; spirit, 
2 gal. ; turpentine, 2 pt. Dissolve the san- 
darac and shellac in the spirit, and add 
the turpentine. 

Hard.— 1.— Gum lac, 20 parts ; juniper 
gum, 8 parts; elemi, 4 parts; alcohol, 
100 parts. 

2. — Brown. — a. — Sandarac, 4 oz. ; pale 
seed lac, 2 oz.; elemi (true), 1 oz. ; al- 
cohol, 1 qt. Digest with agitation till 
dissolved, then add Venice turpentine, I 
oz. 

b. — Gum sandarac, 3 lb. ; shellac, 2 lb. ; 
alcohol (65 over proof), 2 gal. Dissolve, 
add turpentine varnish, 1 qt. ; agitate 
well and strain. Very fine. 

c— Seed lac, X^k lb. ; yellow rosin, 1% 
lb.; rectified alcohol, 2 gal. 

d. — Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; shel- 
lac, 8 oz. ; sandarac rosin, 16 oz. ; eiemi 
rosin, 4 oz.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz. 

e.— Brown (for common purposes). — 
Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz.; shellac, 12 
oz. ; rosin, 12 oz. 

3. — White. — a. — Methylated spirit, 160 
fl.oz.; sandarac rosin, 40 oz. ; gum thus, 
16 oz. 

b. — Methylated spirit (65 above proof), 
160 fl.oz.; sandarac rosin, 40 oz. ; cam- 
phor, % oz. ; coarsely powdered glass, 16 
oz. After straining, add 20 fl.oz. of pale 
turpentine varnish. 

c— Methylated spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; san- 
darac rosin, 24 oz. ; mastic rosin, 8 oz. ; 
elemi rosin, 4 oz. All the above hard var- 
nishes can be polished when dry and hard. 
They should be laid on with a brush used 
always in one direction, so as not to gen- 
erate froth, for if they do, they dry dull 
and lusterless; 24 hours is usually suffi- 
cient time to allow them before proceed- 
ing to polish. 

Tar Varnish for Wood or Iron 

Coal tar, 1% gal. ; spirits of turpentine, 
% pt. ; oil of vitriol, 3 oz. Mix the tar 
and vitriol together with a stick, and 
apply with a brush as it becomes thick. 

Terra Cotta 

Mastic, 1 part; shellac, 10 parts; Ven- 
ice turpentine, 3 parts ; strong alcohol, 20 
parts. 



Tinner's Varnish 

1. — Mix lampblack with shellac. 

2. — 'Mix Frankfort black with shellac. 

3. — Mix Frankfort black with a mix- 
ture of asphaltum and oil of turpentine, 
then add a little linseed oil and minium. 
The exact proportions of tinners' var- 
nishes are immaterial. 

Tools, Lacquer for 

1. — Yellow wax, 4 parts; Berlin blue, 
2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; turpentine 
oil, 16 parts ; neatsfoot oil, q. s. Jttub 
up the blue and lampblack with sufficient 
of the oil to make a stiff, doughy mass, 
and add it to the solution of the wax in 
the oil. 

2. — Dissolve 250 grams of bleached 
shellac in 250 grams of alcohol, and dip 
the tools into it, when they may be hung 
up to dry. 

3. — Tallow, 4 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; melt, 
and strain while hot. With a brush apply 
a coat to the tools and it will prevent 
their rusting. 

Turner's Lacquer 

Gum elemi, 4 parts; shellac (bleached), 
20 parts ; Venice turpentine, 4 parts ; 
strong alcohol, 60 parts. 

Turpentine Varnish 

To 1 pt. of spirits or turpentine add 10 
oz. of clear rosin, pounded ; put it in a 
tin can on a stove and let it boil for half 
an hour. When the rosin is all dissolved, 
let it cool and it i-s ready for use. 

Veneer Liquid 

Gum anime, 8 lb. ; clarified linseed oil, 3 
gal. ; litharge, % lb. ; lead acetate, % lb. ; 
iron sulphate, i/4 lb. ; oil of turpentine, 
5% gal. Boil all together until the mix- 
ture strings, then mix well and strain. 
The aniline colors used to give such var- 
nishes the desired shades are those known 
as "fat aniline colors" or "Soudan dyes." 
A small quantity of the desired color is 
mixed with a little oil of turpentine and 
then stirred into the varnish. These 
colors are not known as "oak stain" or 
"rosewood," but as reds, browns, etc. The 
proper proportions and blending would 
have to be learned from practice. 

Water Varnishes 

1. — Crystal Water ^ Varnish. — 1 lb. ot 
good white gum arable and 1 lb. of glu- 
cose are dissolved in 3 pints of water. 
This dries hard with a gloss. 

2. — Glazing Varnish. — Mix 1 pint of 
white of egg with 1 pint of water. A 
little carbolic acid or salicylic acid or, bet- 
tpr, thymol should be added to preserve 
this varnish. This varnish or glaze dries 



[282] 



(Varnishes) 



(Whitewash) 



with a fair amount of luster. If, after be- 
ing applied, it be placed in a hot room to 
dry, the coat will be made more water- 
proof. Dried albumen may be used in- 
stead of the white of egg by dissolving 
1 oz. in 1 pt. of water ; only the color of 
the glaze is not so good. 

3. — Glue Varnish. — ^Made by dissolving 
1 lb. of good pale glue in 2 gal. water. 
The color of this varnish depends very 
much on the quality of the glue used ; i£ 
the best gelatine, then a white varnish 
will be made ; if a brown glue, then a 
brown varnish. This varnish is not very 
good because of the sticky coat it gives, 
which is not waterproof; by adding just 
before using, a small quantity of bichro- 
mate of potassium (1 oz. in 2 gal.), the 
coat becomes nearly waterproof. It is im- 
portant that the bichromate be added only 
just before use, as it would act on the 
varnish and cause it to set into a gelat- 
inous unworkable mass. This varnish 
forms the basis of some leather varnishes. 
A little thymol or borax may be added as 
a preservative. 

4. — Lac Water Varnish. — Shellac, 6 
oz. ; borax, 1^ oz. ; and water, 1 pt. Boil 
together until the lac is dissolved. If 
bleached lac is used a white varnish will 
be made ; if the orange shellac, the varnish 
will have a pale brown color. This var- 
nish makes a fair vehicle for water col- 
ors; it is good paper varnish, and dries 
with a fair luster and with a hard coat 
which is waterproof. By adding any of 
the soluble coal-tar colors colored var- 
nish can be made. 

White Vamish 

1. — Tender copal, 7% oz. ; camphor, 1 
oz. ; alcohol of 95% ; 1 qt. I^issolve, then 
add mastic, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 
oz. Dissolve and strain. Very white, 
drying, and capable of being polished 
when hard. Used for toys. 

2. — Sandarac, 8 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; Can- 
ada balsam, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 qt. Ninety 
per cent, alcohol, 1 qt. ; gum sandarac, 10 
oz. ; gum mastic, 2 oz. ; gum anime, % oz. 
Dissolve in a clean can, with gentle heat. 
Agitate well when the gums are dissolved ; 
strain through a lawn sieve. 

3. — Susceptible to polish for jambs, lin- 
tels, etc. Mastic, in drops, 12 to 13 
dkgrm. ; sandarac, 48 to 49 dkgrm. ; 
elemi, 6 dkgrm. ; Venetian turpentine, 2 
1. ; alcohol, 2. 

4.--Soft White Varnish.— Methylated 
spirit, 160 fl.oz. ; sandarac rosm, 24 oz. ; 
gum elemi, 16 oz. ; anime rosin, 4 oz. ; 
camphor, 2 oz. 



WHITEWASH. 
1. — Lime, clean and well burnt, 6 qt. ; 
Spanish whiting, or powdered burnt alum, 
4 oz. ; white sugar, 16 oz. ; rice flour, 3 
pt. ; glue, of good quality, 16 oz. ; water, 
boiling, 5 gal. Slake lime in vessel about 
10 gal. capacity, with hot water, keeping 
vessel covered to retain the steam, and 
pass through a sieve to clear of coarse 
£articles. Make up the rice flour to a 
thick paste and boil well, and dissolve the 
glue in water over a water bath; then 
mix the liquids with the remainder of the 
water, and add the whiting or alum and 
the sugar. The mixture should be ap- 
plied warm on outdoor surfaces, and cold 
indoors. 

2.-— A good durable whitewash is made 
as follows: Take % bushel of freshly 
burnt lime, slake it with boiling watei ; 
cover it during the process, to keep in the 
steam. Strain the liquid through a fine 
sieve, and add to it 7 lb. of salt previously 
well dissolved in warm water; 3 lb of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste and 
stirred in boiling hot; i^ lb. of powdered 
Spanish whiting; 1 lb. of clean glue, 
j which has been previously dissolved by 
I soaking it well, and then hanging it over 
i a slow fire in a small kettle within a 
large one filled with water. Add 5 gal. of 
hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and 
let it stand a few days covered from dirt. 
It must be put on quite hot. For this pur- 
pose it can be kept in a kettle on a port- 
able furnace. About 1 pt. of this mixture 
will cover a square yard, 
.^g-— Paris white, 560 parts; zinc white, 
IbO parts; plaster of paris, 160 parts- 
white dextrine, 39 parts; gum acacia 16 
parts : borax 9i^ parts ; alum, 9^ parts. 
Put up in pound packets, and direct a 
pint of boiling water to be added to the 
contents of a packet, the mixture after- 
wards to be thinned with cold water to a 
suitable consistency. Tinting is managed 
by adding a proportion of various ochers 
until the ri?6t shade is obtained. 

4.--T0 Color and Prevpnt Whitewash 
from Rubbing Off. — Give the desired color 
by adding small quantities of lampblack, 
brown sienna, ocher, or other coloring 
material. AM alum to lime whitewash to 
prevent rubbing off. 

5. — Damp Wfills. — For brickwork ex- 
posed to damp, take half a peck of well 
burned quicklime, fresh from the kiln, 
slake with hot water sufficient to reduce it 
to a paste, and pass it throueh a fin° 
sieve: add a gallon of clean whitp salt 
which has bpen dissolved, in a email quan- 
tity of boiling watpr. and a thin, smooth 
paste, also hot, made from 1 lb. of fine rice 



[283] 



(Whitewash) 



(Whitewash) 



flour; also % of a lb. of the best white 
glue, made in the water bath. Mix to- 
gether, stir well, add i/4 of a lb. of best 
Spanish whiting in 5 qt. of boiling water ; 
stir, cover to retain heat and exclude dust, 
and let it stand a week. Heat to boiling, 
stir, and apply hot. The above propor- 
tions will cover forty square yards. 

6. — Fences, etc. — a. — White lime, % 
bushel ; hydraulic cement, 3 pecks ; umber 
and ocher, each 10 lb.; Venetian red, 1 
lb.; lampblack, % lb.; slake the lime, 
shake up the lampblack with a little vine- 
gar, mix well together, add the cement, 
and fill the barrel with water. Let it 
stand several hours ; stir frequently. A 
larger proportion of ocher gives a darker 
color. Use only 1 coat. This is said to 
look well after five years' use. 

b. — Slake the lime in boiling water. To 
% gal. ordinary whitewash add ^ pt. 
molasses and % pt. table salt. Stir fre- 
quently while applying. 

c. — Quicklime, li, bu. ; slake, add % lb. 
common salt; % lb. sulphate of zinc 
(white vitriol) ; 2 qt. sweet milk. Dissolve 
the salt and white vitriol before adding. 
Mix with sufficient water to give the 



proper consistency. Apply as soon as pos- 
sible. 

7. — Government Whitewash. — The fol- 
lowing coating for rough brick walls is 
used by the U. S. government for paint- 
ing lighthouses, and it effectually prevents 
moisture from striking through : Take of 
fresh Rosendale cement, 3 parts, and of 
clean, fine sand, 1 part; mix with fresh 
water thoroughly. This gives a gray or 
granite color, dark or light, according to 
the color of the cement. If brick color is 
desired, add enough Venetian red to the 
mixture to produce the color. If a very 
light color is desired, lime may be used 
with the cement and sand. Care must be 
taken to have all the ingredients well 
mixed together. In applying the wash, the 
wall must be wet with clean fresh water ; 
then follow immediately with the cement 
wash. This prevents the bricks from ab- 
sorbing the water from the wash too rap- 
idly, and gives time for the cement to 
set. The wash must be well stirred during 
the application. The mixture is to be 
made as thick as can be applied conven- 
iently with a whitewash brush. It is ad- 
mirably suited for brickwork, fences, etc., 
but it cannot be used to advantage over 
paint whitewash. 



IT 284 I 



CHAPTER X. 



RUBBER, GUTTA PERCHA AND CELLULOID 



CELLULOID 

Coloring Finished Celluloid Articles 

Though celluloid is obtainable in a 
rariety of colors, it is sometimes neces- 
aary to stain finished articles another 
color. As a rule, coal-tar dyes dissolved 
in spirit make excellent stains for this 
material; and for special purposes the 
following methods are recommended : 

Black. — The article is dipped first in 
weak alkali, then in dilute silver nitrate, 
and left to dry in the sunlight. 

Blue. — A solution of indigo nearly neu- 
tralized with potash is used, or a solution 
of Prussian blue ; or a bath of ferric 
chloride followed, after drying, by one of 
potassium ferrocyanide. 

Brown. — A solution of potassium per- 
manganate, made alkaline with soda, is 
used. 

Green. — The article is dipped in a solu- 
tion of 2 parts of verdigris and 1 of sal 
ammoniac. 

Red. — The articles are first dipped in 
water, slightly acidified with nitric acid, 
and then in an ammoniacal solution ot 
carmine. 

Purple. — Immersion in dilute chloride of 
gold, followed by exposure to strong sun- 
light. 

Yellow. — The article is dipped succes- 
sively into a solution of lead nitrate and 
one of yellow chromate of potash. 

Hardening and Softening Celluloid 

There is no method of hardening cellu- 
loid after it is made; if it is required 
hard, then 3 to 5% of rosin or shellac is 
mixed with the original pyroxyline for 
the manufacture of the celluloid. To 
soften the celluloid and render it flexible 
castor oil is used. Opaque celluloid may 
also be made much harder and more like 
ivory by the addition of mineral matter 
such as carbonate of lime or zinc oxide. 

Polishing Celluloid. — Make a kind of 
putty of hot soap, free from rosin, in 
which equal parts of fine pumice stone 
and flour emery have been mixed. 

Printing on Celluloid 

1. — For ordinary lettering, etc., or 
showing up fine colored lines, celluloid 



may be printed in the usual way. The 
material, however, has to be specially pre- 
pared so as to obtain a matt or rough 
surface of suitable grain (by handwork, 
sand-blast or other means), leaving, if 
necessary, certain parts of the surface 
intact. The sheet or plate is swilled with 
water or alcohol, to free the depressions 
from any clogging, adherent particles, and 
is then coated with a varnish made of 
2 parts of boiled linseed oil, 1 part of 
white copal varnish, and 1 part of re- 
fined ethereal oil, preferably oil of tur- 
pentine or lavender. The varnished plate 
is wiped to force the varnish into the 
artificial pores of the grain and leave 
the surface bare, and is then covered for 
several hours with a mixture of equal 
parts of finely powdered magnesium and 
barium sulphates, after removing which 
it is carefully satined. This treatment 
gives a surface containing, enclosed in 
its innumerable fine pores, a very thin, 
almost transparent layer that exerts 
chemical attraction on the fatty bodies 
in printing ink and absorbs and retains 
them like paper. The most delicate draw- 
ings and shades of color can be printed 
on this surface without risk of running 
or clogging. 

2. — According to F. Meyer celluloid 
printing is performed as follows : On the 
one hand, the desired pattern, etc., is 
printed on paper or like substance, and on 
the other, the celluloid is moistened with 
a known solvent, such as alcohol, ether, 
etc. On pressing the paper and celluloid 
together a portion of the ink on the former 
dissolves out and intimately mixes with 
the dissolved surface of the celluloid, thus 
forming a waterproof design. 

Solvents for Celluloid 

Celluloid dissolves in acetone, sulphuric 
ether, alcohol, oil of turpentine, benzine, 
amyl acetate, etc., alone, or in various 
combinations of these agents. The fol- 
lowing are some proportions for solutions 
of celluloid. 

1. — Celluloid, 5 grams ; amyl acetate, 
10 grams ; acetone, 16 grams ; sulphuric 
ether, 16 grams. 

2. — Celluloid, 10 grams ; sulphuric 
ether, 30 grams ; acetone, 30 grams ; 



[285] 



(Gutta Percha) 



(Rubber Belts) 



amyl acetate, 30 grams; camphor, 3 
grams. 

3. — Celluloid, 5 grams; alcohol, 50 
grams ; camphor, 5 grams. 

4. — Celluloid, 5 grams; amyl acetate, 
50 grams. 

5. — Celluloid, 5 grams; amyl acetate, 
25 grams ; acetone, 25 grams. 

Working Celluloid 

In general celluloid is worked the same 
as horn or ivory. In turning the tool 
should be kept cool with water. In case 
the work tears, heat the celluloid in water 
until 90 to 100° F. are reached. 

GUTTA PERCHA 
1. — Difference Between Gutta Percha 
and Rubber. — These two substances are 
constantly confused. A standard work on 
the subject shows the difference by means 
of the following comparison in double 
columns : 

INDIA-RUBBER GUTTA PERCHA 

(Gum elastic) (Gum plastic) 

Raw rubber is soft In boiling water, be- 
and malleable when comes plastic and 
heated, but is still malleable, and if 
elastic within a then shaped, pre- 
certain range of serves it(s form 
temperature. when cold. 

Acted on by air, be- Acted on by air, be- 
comes viscous. comes brittle and 
Chief applications resinous, but not so 
are in the sulphur- auickly as rubber, 
vulcanized condi- Will not combine or 
tion, intimately mix with 
sulphur. 
2. — Bleaching. — Dissolve it in 20 times 
its weight of boiling benzine, and add 
plaster of the best quality to the solu- 
tion, shaking from time to time. In a 
few days' time the plaster will have 
settled to the bottom, carrying with it 
the impurities soluble in the benzine. 
Decant the liquid and introduce it in 
small portions into a vessel containing 
double its volume of 90% alcohol, stir- 
ring continually. During this operation 
the gutta percha precipitates in the form 
of a perfectly white pastelike mass. 
The drying of the gutta percha thus 
purified requires several weeks' exposure 
to the air; this may be accelerated by 
triturating it in a mortar, and removing 
from it the water that separates. 

3. — Cementing Cloth, Gutta Percha 
Tissue for. — Tailors use a special prep- 
aration of gutta percha for this pur- 
pose, consisting of a thin tissue, placed 
between layers of the cloth and pressed 
with a hot iron. Used extensively to 
fasten the bottom edsre of trousers. 

4. — Liquid Gutta Percha. — This useful 
preparation is to be found in the United 
States Pharmacopoeia, and is made thus : 



Gutta percha in thin slices, 1 oz. ; chloro- 
form, 8 fl.oz. ; carbonate of lead, in fine 
powder, 1 oz. Add the gutta percha to 
6 fl.oz. of the chloroform in a stoppered 
bottle and shake them together frequent- 
ly until the solution has been effected. 
Then add the carbonate of lead previous- 
ly mixed with the remainder of the chloro- 
form, and, having several times shaken 
the whole together, set the mixture aside 
and let it remain at rest until the insolu- 
ble matter has subsided. Lastly, decant 
the clear liquid and keep it in a well 
stoppered bottle. 1 part of this solution 
in 10 parts by weight of chloroform pro- 
duces an excellent and convenient prep- 
aration for painting oyer cuts or wounds. 
It readily acts as a styptic and protective 
to the wound and causes neither tension 
nor pain. If pure iodoform be added, 
about 10%, it further enhances the value 
of the styptic and can be used in veteri- 
nary surgery with marked success for 
applying to cuts and abrasions, as it ar- 
rests hemorrhage, forms a coating over 
the wound and promotes a healthy cica- 
trization. 

5. — Melting Gutta Percha. — The gutta 
percha may be dissolved by adding bisul- 
phide of carbon ; if the liquid thus ob- 
tained is poured uT>on glass, after a short 
time the gutta percha may be lifted in the 
form of a thin sheet, the bisulphide eva- 
porating very quickly. 

6. — Plastic Gutta Percha. — When gutta 
percha is steeped for a few hours in ben- 
zole or naphtha it becomes considerably 
swollen ; if afterward soaked in hot 
water, it is exceedingly plastic and re- 
quires but moderate pressure to obtain 
most perfect copies from even such fragile 
objects as plaster-of-paris models. 

RUBBER 

Belts, Rubber Preservative 

Dressing for. — Cut india-rubber into 
small pieces and dissolve with 5 parts by 
weight of turpentine oil in a small iron 
well-covered crucible at a temperature of 
50° C. (122° F.) over a coal fire. As 
soon as the rubber is dissolved, add 4 
parts by weight of rosin, stir, remelt, 
and add in the same way 4 parts by 
weight of yellow wax. While melting 
the mixture must be occasionally stirred. 
Then put 15 parts by weight of fish oil 
and 5 of tallow into a sufficiently large 
vessel, heat till the whole is melted, and 
add the first mixture warm, stirring all 
the while. Continue stirring till the mass 
is compact. The dressing should be used 
in the following manner : If the belts 
are old and brittle, apply the dressing 
freely with a brush on both sides in the 



[286] 



(Deodorizing Rubber) 



(Dissolving Rubber) 



sun or in a warm room and leave them 
to dry. New belts, or belts that are still 
good, should like the previously treated 
brittle belts, be lubricated a little on the 
inside from time to time while in opera- 
tion ; in this way they will be rendered 
very durable, and will engage well on 
the pulleys, drums, etc. Cheap, old rub- 
ber waste can be used instead of india- 
rubber ; it should first, however, be boiled 
for a quarter or half an hour in soda lye, 
and 6% parts by weight instead of 5 
should be taken. 

Corks, Rubber, To Cut and Bore 

1, — Dip the knife, or cork borer, in 
solution of caustic potash or soda. The 
strength is of very little consequence, 
but it should not be weaker than the 
ordinary reagent solution. 

2. — Alcohol is generally recommended, 
and it works well until it evaporates, 
which is generally long before the cork is 
cut or bored through, and more has to be 
applied ; water acts just as well as al- 
cohol, and lasts longer. When, however, 
a tolerably sharp knife is moistened with 
soda lye, it goes through the india-rubber 
quite as easily as through a common 
cork ; and the same may be said of a cork 
borer, of whatever size. We have fre- 
quently bored inch holes in large caout- 
chouc stoppers, perfectly smooth and cy- 
lindrical, by this method. In order to 
finsh the hole without the usual con- 
traction of its diameter, the stopper 
should be held firmly against a flat sur- 
face of common cork until the borer 
passes into the latter. 

Covering Cloth with Rubber 

To cover cloth with rubber, naphtha, 
alcohol and benzole are chiefly employed 
for dissolving the rubber. They are mixed 
with puT-ified solid paraflSne and ground 
together. 

Deodorizing Rubber 

1. — Place the articles, covered with 
charcoal dust, in an enclosed vessel, let 
them remain for several hours at a tern 
perature of 94° F. Clean the charcoal 
dust from the articles ; they will be odor- 
less. 

2. — Caustic potash, % oz. ; water, 1% 
pt. ; dissolve and heat to boiling. Put 
the goods into this for a few minutes, 
rinse thoroughly and dry. 

3. — Both sides of the article should be 
covered with a thin layer of animal char- 
coal. Heat for 3 or 4 hours from 122 to 
140° F. 

4. — Equal parts of alcohol, 36%, and 
linseed oil, shaken together thorougniy. 



Apply to the hose with a cloth. StretcH' 
the hose a little, and rub until nearly dry. 
Repeat 3 or 4 times at intervals of sev- 
eral days. This treatment renders the 
hose gastight. 

5.— Treat the rubber with solutions of 
caustic potash or caustic soda ; treatment 
with potash or soda, since caustic potash 
and caustic soda injure the rubber ; boil 
with alkaline soaps ; boil with lescive 
phenix — calcined soda with water glass ; 
and lastly, after treatment with soda, 
leave the rubber for some time in a solu- 
tion of cooking salt (10 to 15%). 

Dissolving Rubber 

The solution of india-rubber or gutta 
percha in chloroform or benzole, fre- 
quently called for in photographic work, 
is usually attended with so many difficul- 
ties and drawbacks that in nine cases out 
of ten where the solution is required the 
experimentalist usually purchases it ready 
made. Yet there need be no difficulty 
about the matter. First, pure rubber 
should be obtained. When vulcanized, 
it is perfectly insoluble. Secondly, pure 
solvents are necessary. Chloroform con- 
taining a large excess of alcohol and 
water will fail to act even upon the 
purest rubber. Again, under the most 
satisfactory conditions, the action is very 
slow, and the amount of rubber capable 
of being taken up is proportionately very 
small. The plan usually adopted is to 
place a la*rge amount of shredded rubber 
in a bottle, which is then filled up with 
the solvent, and shaken at intervals a 
few times ; and when the shreds do not 
dissolve like pieces of sugar the whole is 
thrown aside, and we are written to for 
an explanation of the failure. If a 
small quantity of rubber had been placed 
in the bottle, and the liquid added, it 
would have been observed gradually to 
swell out very considerably after the 
lapse of some time, and a mixture of 
the whole would be facilitated by stir- 
ring with a glass rod or a splinter ot 
wood. The rapidity with which the rub- 
ber absorbs the solvent will depend upon 
its condition ; but the action is never 
very quick, nor is it in any way analo- 
gous to the dissolution of a crystal. One 
cause of the failure of chloroform to act 
upon the caoutchouc may arise from the 
presence of alcohol in too great a propor- 
tion. Chloroform as sold almost always 
contains alcohol in small quantity, owing 
to the fact that when none is present it 
cannot be prevented from decomposing 
spontaneously, more especially in the 
light. It is, however, stated that when 
entirely protected from light absolute 



[287] 



(Ebonite and Vulcanite) 



(Ebonite and Vulcanite) 



chloroform will not undergo any change. 
A solution of gutta percha in chloroform 
has a use which is not generally known. 
It forms, when carefully made and fil- 
tered quite bright, the best possible ma- 
terial for obscuring glass for focussing 
screens. For fine microscopic work it is 
said by those whose opinions are of 
weight to be unequaled. 

Durability of Rubber Goods, To In- 
crease 
A great disadvantage of rubber goods 
consists in their becoming brittle or 
sticky very quickly. For the purpose of 
rendering them soft and elastic again, 
prepare a moderately strong solution of 
alum in water, into which lay the rubber 
articles for a day or two ; after that time 
they are no longer hard or sticky. It is 
of great advantage for all rubber goods, 
if seldom used, to be kept in clean water; 
this will greatly increase their durability. 
If the objects are not easily placed under 
water, as for instance, bicycle tires and 
similar bulky pieces, it is well to wash 
them from time to time with water to 
prevent them from becoming too dry. In 
this connection it is well to mention 
that it is harmful for the tires to be 
tightly inflated over winter and the rub- 
ber to touch the floor ; the bicycle should 
rest on a stand or be suspended. More- 
over, it should be kept in a dark room in 
as even a temperature as possible, or at 
least be provided with a covering of cloth, 
since air and light exercise an equally 
destructive action upon rubber. 

Ebonite and Vulcanite 

These two materials are practically 
the same substance, the main difference 
being in the coloring materials used. 
They consist of india-rubber and sulphur, 
practically the same as vulcanized india- 
rubber, but a great heat, and time, are 
employed to vulcanize the compound. To 
prepare it as sold in the form of combs, 
toilet and fancy articles, the rubber is 
worked in a masticating machine with 
the proper quantity of sulphur, and when 
thoroughly mixed a sufficient quantity 
is put into a mold of the right shape 
made of plaster of paris, or other mate- 
rial which will not combine with sulphur, 
and exposed in a steam boiler to a heat 
of 315° F., and a pressure of about 12 lb. 
to the inch for 2 hours. It is then re- 
moved from the mold, and finished, and 
polished exactly in the same manner as 
ivory. The application of heat as^ above 
without a steam pressure is sufficient to 
vulcanize or harden the compound, but 
the result is not always so satisfactory, 



as the material is liable to be porous, if 
not compressed while hardening. Gutta 
percha may be treated in exactly the 
same manner as rubber, and cannot be 
distinguished from it, but is rather more 
troublesome to work. The vulcanite may 
be turned or carved in the same way as 
ivory, with the advantage that it may be 
molded to the required form without the 
great waste which attends ivory carving. 
It is also much less liable to fracture. 
The smaller the proportions of sulphur 
in the rubber, and the lower the tempera- 
ture used, the softer and more elastic 
will be the rubber. About 10 or 15% of 
sulphur and a temperature of 270 to 
275° F. for 4 hours, will make an elastic 
rubber; 30% of sulphur and a tempera- 
ture of 315° F. for 2 hours will make 
a hard vulcanite like ivory. 

Ebonite. — 1. — Sulphur, 2 to 3 parts, is 
mixed with caoutchouc, 5 parts, and cured 
for several hours at 75° C, under a pres- 
sure of 4 to 5 atmospheres. Ebonite is 
apt to become porous and conductive in 
moist air or in sunlight. It keeps best 
when dry and in the dark. Heat softens 
and deforms it. To prevent loss of insula- 
tion by oxidation of the sulphur, the sur- 
face should be washed from time to time 
with boiling water, then rinsed with dis- 
tilled water, and dried. The surface 
should be shellaced or paraffined, especial- 
ly in moist climates. 

2. — Hard Good Quality. — Best Para 
rubber, 2 parts ; sulphur, 1 part, by 
weight. 

3. — ^American Ebonite. — Rubber, 12 
parts ; sulphur, 8 parts ; whiting, 1 part ; 
wash, 1 part, by weight. Curing molds 
for above ; lead, 2 parts ; antimony, 1 
part, by weight. 

4. — Hints on Working Ebonite. — a. — 
The following are useful hints, which ap- 
peared in the American Machinist, relat- 
ing to the working of ebonite : 

The best qualities show on fracture a 
brightness something of the nature of jet, 
and the poorer sorts a corresponding dull- 
ness. Although an apparently easy ma- 
terial to machine, its wearing effect on 
cutting tools is comparatively great. In 
sawing, turning, planing, or milling, the 
best speed is that at which brass is ma- 
chined, and milling should always be ac- 
companied by the free use of soap and wa- 
ter, having regard to the fact that a mill- 
ing cutter is an expensive tool; but for 
turning or sawing, lubricants are in the 
way, on account of the spattering round of 
ebonite cuttings and soapy water. 

b. — Turning. — When turning ebonite it 
is always preferable to leave the tools 
dead hard with a lot of "rake" on, and to 



[288] 



(Working Hard Rubber) 



( Working Hard Rubber ) 



take as deep a cut as possible, with a 
slow feed. Herein will be found the ad- 
vantage of the tool-holder system for turn- 
ing tools, in which the cutter can be 
taken out and replaced by a fresh one, 
saving thereby a good many journeys to 
the grindstone ; for the moment a cutter 
becomes dull, which is frequent, instead 
of cutting it "burns" the surface of the 
material, and, of course, militates against 
the production of good work. 

c. — Lubricants. — When tapping ebonite 
soft soap has been found to be the best 
lubricant. 

Oil should never be used as it works 
into the material and in time rots the 
thread. Taps made of rod brass will be 
found useful, for if a dozen or two holes 
are executed with an ordinary tap, it will 
be comparatively useless on metal. Brass 
taps are easily made, and last almost as 
well as steel. Reamers of brass can be 
used in the same manner ; an ordinary 
nose type with four saw-slits made in the 
end, and a tapped hole admitting a taper 
screw for expanding the tool as it becomes 
worn, is as handy and as cheap a method 
of reaming holes in ebonite as the writer 
knows of. When worn, it can be headed 
up easily and made ready for use again. 
In shops where ebonite is used it is nearly 
always found necessary to do a lot of 
sawing, and it will be found best not to 
use expensive tools. Good saws — properly 
ground for clearance — are often rendered 
useless after a day's work on this ma- 
terial, and home-made sheet-steel saws are 
as good as the most expensive ones for 
cutting, besides being more readily sharp- 
ened, the necessary clearance being given 
to them by setting the teeth over side- 
ways. Although of a brittle nature, tne 
thinnest sheets can be worked in the press 
up to a thickness of about .02 in., keeping 
the tools ^ and materials warm by means 
of a gas-jet, and, although the stampings 
come out rather rough on the edges, they 
will be found suitable for jobs where a 
smooth edge is not desired. 

d. — Polishing, — In polishing ebonite, 
after taking all tool-marks out with emery 
paper (comm^acing with F.F. and finish- 
ing with No. 1 blue-black French paper), 
a lap of hard felt charged with bath brick 
and oil is used, after which another lap 
charged with rotten stone and oil will be 
found to give good results ; at the same 
time taking care not to exercise too much 
pressure, for an excess of friction "burns" 
the surface of the ebonite, rendering it in- 
capable of taking a high polish. If a 
dead finish is desired, all that is neces- 
sary, after using the emery cloth, is for 



the surface to be rubbed over with a cloth 
dampened in paraffine. 

Vulcanite. — 1. — About equal parts of 
rubber and sulphur are used, to which is 
added about 7 to 10 per cent, of lamp- 
black. These are all worked together in 
the masticating machine. A very useful 
vulcanizer for small goods is that made 
for dental work. It usually takes tho 
shape of a cylindrical iron vessel with 
bolted-on lid, and fitted with a pressui 
gauge, thermometer, and safety valve. Per- 
forated divisions are put inside for the ar 
tides to rest on. With the simple vulcan 
izers the required heat is obtained by put- 
ting a little water in the bottom of the 
vessel, then lighting a burner underneath 
to create steam which soon reaches a high 
pressure and temperature. The safety- 
valve is set to blow off at the proper 
pressure. Larger vulcanizers are steam 
jacketed, which is no advantage except 
where high-pressure steam is available. 
The heat for vulcanizing should be slowly 
raised, the whole process being extended to 
about 4 hours, the final and highest tem- 
perature being 150° C. (302° F.) . In largj 
works the vulcanizing chamber is a hori 
zontal cylindrical oven with a door in one 
end, free high-pressure steam being used, 
supplied to the interior (without a 
jacket). It may be explained that the 
pressure and temperature of steam go to- 
gether, and for 302° F. the steam pressure 
would be 55 lb. on the gauge. 

2. — (Of Gitschin.) — Thirty-six parts of 
nitrate of potash, 19 parts nitrate of soda, 
11 parts sulphur, 9 parts sawdust, 9.5 
parts chlorate of potash, 6 parts wood- 
charcoal, 4.5 parts Glauber's salt, 2.25 
parts red prussiate of potash, 2.35 parts 
sugar, 1.25 parts picric acid. 

3. — Polishing. — a. — Remove scratches 
with a smooth wet water-of-Ayr stone, 
and then polish in the lathe with fine 
pumice and a stiff brush. After washin " 
the pumice off, polish it with whiting and 
soft brush. 

b. — The mathematical instrument mak- 
ers treat it as brass — that is, for flat 
work they first use water-of-Ayr stone, 
and then rotten stone and oil. Turned 
work is polished in the lathe with rotten 
stone and oil, taking care not to use too 
high a speed, which would heat the work. 
Some use lampblack and oil to finish with 
where a very high polish is wanted, or the 
bare palm of the hand, as in getting up 
silver plate. Chain and ornament work, 
made of seahorse-leather, and for work of 
irregular forms, buffs of calico. A num- 
ber of pieces of calico, 12 in. in diameter, 
are screwed together between flanges, like 
a circular-saw spindle, and used with rot- 



[289] 



(Working Rubber) 



(Solvents for Rubber) 



ten stone, always taking care not to heat 
the work; brushes are not at all suitable 

for it. . , . , 

c. — To polish turned vulcanite which 
has been finished with a scraping tool, 
take a handful of vulcanite shavings, and 
apply these as the article revolves. Next 
prepare a piece of soft linen (a surgical 
bandage will do) by soaking in any sort 
of common oil, and sprinkle one side with 
putty powder (oxide of tin), then loop the 
prepared side round the article, holding 
the ends firmly with both hands, and work 
it evenly all over the article while the 
lathe is running, and finish the polishing 
in the same manner with a clean piece of 
linen without polishing medium. 

4, — Soft Vulcanized India Rubber. — 
Para rubber, 7.5 parts; sulphur, 0.75 
part ; lime, 0.01 part ; whiting, 7.5 parts ; 
French chalk, 1.25 parts; litharge, 1.5 
parts, by weight. 

5. — Vulcanizing Rubber. — Parkes' 
method is now sometimes adopted. The 
caoutchouc is immersed in a mixture of 
39 parts of bisulphide of carbon and 1 
part of chloride of sulphur. It is next 
placed in a room heated to 70° F., and 
when all the sulphide of carbon has been 
volatilized, the process is so far complete 
that it is only requisite to boil the ma- 
terial in a solution of about 18 oz. of 
caustic potassa to 2 gal. of water, the 
vulcanized caoutchouc being next washed 
to remove excess of alkali. 

6. — Working Vulcanite. — Vulcanite can 
be worked with ordinary wood-cutting, 
sawing or turning tools, as it works much 
like ivory. It is desirable to keep vul- 
canite cool when working it, as it heats 
rapidly and softens with heat. At the 
boiling point of water vulcanite can be 
bent and, when cold, will retain its new 
shape. At a little higher temperature vul- 
canite is soft enough to be impressed with 
a pattern, or to be molded. 

Joining Rubber 

Rubber is easily joined, and made as 
strong as an original fabric, by softening 
before a fire, laying the edges carefully 
together, without dust, dirt, or moisture 
between. The edges so joined must be 
freshly cut in the beginning. Tubing can 
be united by joining the edges around a 
glass cylinder, which has previously been 
rolled with paper. After the glass is 
withdrawn the paper is easily removed. 
Sift flour or powdered soapstone through 
the tube to prevent the sides from adher- 
ing from accidental contact. 

Repairing 

1. — Hose. — Fill the cracks previously 
cleaned with the following solution : 20 



parts of gutta percha, 40 parts of caout- 
chouc, 10 parts of isinglass, 160 parts of 
sulphide of carbon. Very wide, gaping 
slits may be plastered with the solution 
in layers and the slit drawn together with 
a string. Allow 1 to 2 days for drying. 
Then the string can be cut through and 
the protruding cement trimmed off with a 
sharp knife, that has previously been 
dipped in water. 

2. — Pads and Covers. — a. — Before the 
patching, the cracked surfaces to unite 
well must be dried, entirely freed from all 
dirt and dust and greased well, otherwise 
the surfaces will not combine. 

b. — In case of a cover, waterproof coat, 
or rubber boots, etc., take a moderately 
thick piece of india-rubber, suited to size 
of the object, cut off the edges obliquely 
with a sharp knife moistened in water, 
coat the defective places as well as the 
cut pieces of rubber with oil of turpentine, 
lay the coated parts together and subject 
them for 24 hours to a moderate pres- 
sure. The mended portion will be just 
as waterproof as the whole one. 

c. — Rubber cushions or articles contain- 
ing air are repaired in a very simple man- 
ner, after being cleaned as aforesaid. Then 
take colophony, dissolve it in alcohol 
(90%) so that a thick paste forms, smear 
up the holes, allow all to harden well, and 
the rubber article, pillow, ball, knee caps, 
etc., may be used again. 

Solvents 

1. — The best solvent and perhaps the 
most rapid consists of a mixture of meth- 
ylated ether and petroleum spirit — the 
common benzoline used for burning in 
sponge lamps. The mixture is as much 
superior in power to either of its con- 
stituents singly as the ether-alcohol is to 
plain ether in its action on pyroxyline. 

2. — A very thick solution can be made 
by dissolving 60 gr. of good india-rub- 
ber in 2 oz. of benzoline and 1 oz. of sul- 
phuric ether. If the india-rubber be cut 
up fine and the mixture shaken occasion- 
ally, the solution will be complete in two 
or three hours, when it may be diluted to 
any required strength with benzoline 
alone. The india-rubber should be as 
light-colored as possible, and all the outer 
oxidized portions must be cut away. 
Shred the clean india-rubber with a pair 
of scissors, and throw it at once into the 
solvent. 

Sponge, Rubber 

The uses to which sponge rubber are 
put are many and varied. It is used as 
a cushion for rubber stamps, in artificial 
feet, in playing balls, in semi-solid tires, 



[290] 



(Sponge Rubber) 



(Varnishes for Rubber) 



for erasive rubber, for glove-cleaners, 
and it has been tried in horse collars, 
harness pads, cushions, and so on. In 
all cases the sponginess is induced by in- 
corporating something that will give off 
vapors during the process of cure. The 
very cheapest liquid for this purpose is 
water ; hence one of the first compounds 
for puff balls depended upon its dampness 
for sponging. It was as follows : 

1. — Soft African rubber, 5 lb. ; re- 
claimed rubber, 5 lb. ; whiting, 6 lb. ; 
litharge, 2 lb. ; palm oil, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 
5^ oz. ; damp sawdust, 2 lb. The saw- 
dust was just fine enough to pass through 
a sieve of No. 20 mesh. It was thoroughly 
wet and the mixing done on a cool mill. 
A slow cure and the cooling of the molds 
before opening are of course necessary. 

2. — Compounds similar to the above 
where fiber, substitute, etc., are made the 
means of carrying the water are very com- 
mon and are exactly as good for the pur- 
pose. ^ Quite a variety of ingredients are 
used in some of the spongy compounds, 
but none will appear to the rubber manu 
facturer to be more novel than brown 
sugar and licorice, both of which bring 
about sponginess. Perhaps the most dis- 
tinctively "freak" compounds in this line 
are those that follow, and have been the 



subjects of British patents: 

a. — Para rubber, 50 lb. ; tungstate of 
soda, 9 lb. ; alum, 2 lb. ; carbonate of am- 
monia, 14 lb.; asbestos (fine powder) 28 
lb. ; arsenic, 1 lb. ; gum kauri, 1 lb. 

Varnishes for Rubber 

India-rubber Varnish. — 1. — An excellent 
and rapidly drying waterproof varnish is 
prepared in the following manner : Heat 
a weighed quantity of boiled linseed oil 
until it fumes strongly. A vessel with 
plenty of extra room in it must be used. 
Have ready some india-rubber cut small, 
and 1 oz. of it for every pound in the orig- 
inal weight of the oil. When one piece 
thrown in melts at once, put in the rest 
gradually, and when all is melted stop the 
heating. When cold dilute the varnish 
with turps to the required consistency. 

2. — Dissolve 10 lb. of india-rubber in 
10 lb. of turpentine and 20 lb. of petro- 
leum by treating same on a water bath. 
When the solution is completed add 45 lb. 
of drying oil and 5 lb. of lampblack and 
mix thoroughly. 

3. — Dissolve 7 lb. of india-rubber in 25 
lb. of oil of turpentine. By continued 
heating dissolve 14 lb. of rosin in the mix- 
ture. Color white hot with 3 lb. of lamp- 
black. 



r291T 



CHAPTER XI. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING 



SOLDERING FLUIDS, FATS, 
PASTEES AND POWDERS. 

The Soldering of Metals and the Prepa- 
ration of Solders and Soldering Agents. — 
The object of soldering is to unite two 
portions of the same metal or of different 
metals by means of a more fusible metal 
or metallic alloy, applied when melted, 
and known by the name of solder. As 
the strength of the soldering depends on 
the nature of the solder used, the degree 
of strength required for the joint must be 
kept in view in choosing a solder. The 
parts to be joined must be free from oxide 
and thoroughly clean ; this can be secured 
by filling, scouring, scraping, or pickling 
with acids. The edges must exactly fit, 
and be heated to the melting-point of the 
solder. The latter must have a lower 
melting-point than either of the portions 
of metal that require to be joined, and 
if possible only those metals should be 
chosen for solder which form alloys with 
them. The solder should also as far as 
possible have the same color and approxi- 
mately the same strength as the article 
whose edges are to be united. 

To remove the layers of oxide which 
form during the process of soldering, vari- 
ous so-called "fluxes" are employed. These 
fluxes are melted and applied to the joint, 
and act partly to keep off the air, thus 
preventing oxidation, and partly reduce 
and dissolve the oxides themselves. The 
choice of flux depends on the quantity of 
heat required for soldering. 

Solders are classed as soft and hard 
solders. Soft solders, also called tin sol- 
ders, or white solders, consist of soft, 
readily fusible metals or alloys, and do not 
possess much strength ; they are easy to 
handle on account of their great fusibility. 
Tin, lead-tin and alloys of tin, lead, and 
bismuth are used for soft solder, pure 
tin being employed only for articles made 
of the same metal (pure tin). 

The addition of some lead makes the 
solder less fusible but cheaper, while that 
of bismuth lowers the melting-point. Soft 
solders are used for soldering easily fusible 
metals such as Britannia metal, etc., also 
for soldering tin-plate. To prepare solder, 
the metals are melted together in a graph- 



ite crucible at as low a temperature as 
possible, well stirred with an iron rod,, 
and cast into ingots in an iron mold. 
To melt the solder when required for sol- 
dering, the soldering iron is used ; the lat- 
ter should be kept as free from oxidation 
as possible, and the part applied should be 
tinned over. 

The fluxes generally used in the soft- 
soldering of metals are powdered rosin or 
a solution of chloride of zinc, alone or 
combined with sal ammoniac. 

Soldering Fluids, Antacid. — 1. — A neu- 
tral soldering liquid can be prepared by 
mixing 27 parts neutral zinc chloride, 11 
parts sal ammoniac and 62 parts water, or 
1 part sugar of milk, 1 part glycerine, and 
8 parts water. 

2. — Into an earthenware cup pour some 
commercial muriatic acid, into which put 
small pieces of scrap zinc. Let one piece 
dissolve or nearly so before another is 
put in, as otherwise the acid gets very hot, 
and is liable to break the jar. Always 
put more in than the acid will dissolve. 
Then let it stand for twenty-four hours. 
Now pour half of this into a small bottle 
with a wide mouth, and dilute with an 
equal volume of water, and filter. Add 
liquid ammonia by the drop until the 
precipitate formed in the beginning dis- 
solves again. Apply with a stick or small 
brush. Use what remains in the jar to 
clean the iron after each heating, by dip- 
ping the whole pointed end thereof into 
the liquid. This flux may be used on al- 
most any metal except aluminum, zinc or 
galvanized iron. For the two last named 
the commercial acid should be used ; for 
galvanized iron wire use 3 parts lead and 
1 part zinc. 

If the shape of the article to be soldered 
does not admit of the use of liquid solder- 
ing water, mix the solution of ammonia- 
zinc chloride with starch until a syrupy 
liquid is obtained. 

3. — If the above are not within the 
reach of the user, a serviceable soldering 
liquid may be formed by mixing together 1 
part of lactic acid, 1 part of glycerine, and 
5 parts of water. 

4. — Silver, Anti-oxidizer for. — A wash 
^l ^ P^^t^ <^f whiting and water dried on 
the bright parts of jewelry or silverware 



[293] 



(Soldering Preparatioiis) 



( Soldering Preparations ) 



will save it from oxidation while solder- 
ing, but must not interfere with the bo- 
raxed joint to be soldered. 

Fats. — Soldering fat or grease is com- 
monly a mixture of rosin and tallow with 
the addition of a small quantity of sal 
ammoniac. It is particularly adapted to 
the soldering of tinned ware, because it is 
easily wiped off the surface after the joint 
is made, whereas if rosin were used alone, 
the scraping away might remove some of 
the tin and spoil the object. 

1. — In a pot of sufficient size and over 
a slow fire melt together 500 grams of 
olive oil and 400 grams of tallow ; stir 
in slowly 250 grams of rosin in powder, 
and let the whole boil up once ; let it cool 
down, and add 125 grams of saturated 

TABLE OF 



solution of sal ammoniac, stirring the 
while. When cold, this preparation will 
be ready for use. 

2. — Soldering fat for aluminum is made 
by melting together equal parts of rosin 
and tallow, half the quantity of zinc chlo- 
ride being added to the mixture. 

Paste. — Mix starch paste with a solu- 
tion of tin chloride to produce a liquid 
about the consistency of syrup. This is 
more readily applied than ordinary solder 
ing liquid. 

Powders. — 1. — ^Borax is the flux most 
frequently used for hard soldering. It 
should be applied to the soldering seam 
either dry or stirred to a paste with water. 
When used direct the process is somewhat 
difficult. The parts must be carefully 

SOLDERS 



Name. Composition. 

Soft, coarse Tin, 1 ; lead, 2 

Soft, fine Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 

Soft, fusible Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 ; bis., 1 

Pewterer's Tin, 3 ; lead, 4 ; bis., 2 

Spelter, soft Copper, 1 ; zinc, 1 

Spelter, hard Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1 

Silver, fine Silver, 66.6 ; copper, 23.4 ; zinc, 10 

Silver, common Silver, 66,6 ; copper, 30 ; zinc, 3.4 

Silver, for brass and iron Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 

Silver, more fusible Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 ; zinc, 1 

^,,-.,0^1^ i Gold, 18 carats fine, 66.6 

Gold, for 18 carat gold j gil,,^,.^ 16 7 . copper, 16.7 

Gold, more fusible Same as above with a trace of zinc 

Platinum » Fine gold 

Material to be Soldered. Solder. Flux. 

Tin Soft, coarse or fine Rosin or zinc, chl. 

Lead Soft, coarse Rosin 

Brass, copper, iron and zinc Soft, coarse • Zinc, chl. 

Pewter Pewterer's or fusible Rosin or zinc, chl. 

Brass Spelter, soft Borax 

Copper and iron Spelter, soft or hard Borax 

Brass, copper, iron, steel Any silver, S. Borax 

Gold Gold, S. Borax 

Platinum Fine gold Borax 



No. 



Name. 



Composition. 



Flux. 



Fluxing 
point. 



1. Plumbers' coarse solder Tin, 1 ; lead, 3 R 

2. Plumbers' sealed solder Tin, 1 ; lead, 2 R 

3. Plumbers' fine solder Tin, 1 : lead, 2 R 

4. Tinners' solder Tin, IVz ; lead, 1 R or Z 

5. Tinners' fine solder Tin, 2 ; lead, 1 R or Z 

6. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron.. Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1. . . B 

7. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron..Good tough brass, 5; zinc, 1. . . B 

8. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron, 

more fusible than 6 or 7 Copper, 1 ; zinc, 1 B 

9. Hard solder for copper, brass, iron.. Good tough plate brass B 

10. Silver solder for jewelers Silver, 19 ; copper, 1 ; brass, 1. . B 

[294 ] 



800° F. 
441° F. 
370° F. 
334° F. 
340° F, 



(Table of Solders) 



(Table of Solders) 



TABLE OF ^OIAyER^— (Continued) 



No. 



Name. 



Composition. 



Flux. 



Fluxing 
point. 



11. Silver solder for plating 

12. Silver solder for silver, brass, iron. . 

13. Silver solder for steel joints 

14. Silver solder, more fusible 

15. Gold solder 

16. Bismuth solder 

17. Bismuth solder 

18. Bismuth solder 

19. Bismuth solder 

20. Bismuth solder 

21. Pewterers' solder 

Abbreviations: R, rosin; B, borax; Z 



Silver, 2 ; brass, 1 , 

Silver, 1 ; brass, 1 

Silver, 19; copper, 1; brass, 1. 
Silver, 5 ; brass, 5 ; zinc, 5. . . , 
Gold, 12 ; silver, 2 ; copper, 4. , 
Lead, 4; tin, 4; bismuth, 1. ., 
Lead, 3 ; tin, 3 ; bismuth, 1. . , 
Lead, 2; tin, 2; bismuth, 1. . 
Lead, 2; tin, 1; bismuth, 2. . , 
Lead, 3 ; tin, 5 ; bismuth, 3. . . 
Lead, 4 ; tin, 3 ; bismuth, 2. . . 

chloride of zinc. 



B 

B 

B 

B 

B 
RorZ 
RorZ 
RorZ 
RorZ 
RorZ 
RorZ 



320° F. 
310° F. 
292° F. 
236° F. 
202° F. 



BRASS SOLDERS 



Copper. Zinc. 



Tin. 



Lead. 



Color. 



Very strong 58 

Strong 53 

Medium 50 

Medium 54^ 

Easily fusible 34 

Easily fusible 44 

White solder 57 

The best solder for platinum is fine 
gold. The joint is not only very infusible, 
but it is not easily acted upon by common 
agents. For German silver joints an ex- 



Reddish yellow 
Reddish yellow 
Reddish yellow 
Reddish yellow 

White 
Gray 

White 



cellent solder is composed of equal parts 
of silver, brass and zinc. The proper flux 
is borax. 



42 




47 




50 




431/^ 


1 


66 




50 


4 


28 


15 



SOLDERS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES 



Solders. 



Gold. 



Sil- 
ver. Copper. Tin. 



Zinc. Lead. 



Bis- Melting 

muth. Brass, point. 



Pewterer's 

Pewterer's, soft. 
Pewterer's, soft . . 

Tinman's 

Coarse 

Plumber's 

Hard spelter . . . . 

Gold 

For brazing steel. 
Hardest silver. . . 

Hard silver 

Soft silver 

For aluminum . . 







2 




1 


2 


360^ 




. . 


3 




4 


1 






, . 


2 




1 


■ • . . 


. 






1 




1 


*. . . 


393° 






1 




3 


. . 


500° 




. . 


1 




2 


. . 


475° 


. . 


4 




3 




, , . . 


1,869° 


1 


2 








. 


.... 


19 


1 








2 


. . . • 


4 


1 










. . . . 


3 


. . 








1 


. . . • 


2 


, , 








1 


• . . . 


2 


. , 


2 


1 




. 


. . . . 



WHITE SOLDERS FOR GOLD WORK 



No. 



Name. 



Fine silver. 
Parts. 



Copper. 
Parts. 



Spelter. 
Parts. 



Fusing 
point. 



1. Hard solder 16 

2. Medium 15 

3. Easy 14 

4. Common hard 12^/^ 

5. Common easy 11 ^/^ 

[295] 



31/2 


1/2 


4 


1 


41/2 


1% 


6 


1% 


eVa 


2 



1,866° F. 
1,843° F. 
1,818° F. 
1,826° F. 
1,802° F. 



(Soft Solders) 



(Soft Solders) 



COLORED SOLDERS FOR GOLD WORK 

Fine gold. Fine silver. Shot copper. 

No, Name. Parts. Parts. Parts. 

1. Best gold solder 121^ ' 4% 3 

2. Medium gold solder 10 6 4 

3. Common gold solder 8l^ 6V2 5 



SILVER SOLDERS 



No. 



Name. 



Fine Shot Arse- 

silver, copper. Brass. Zinc. nic. Compo. 
oz. dwt. dwt. gr. dwt. gr. dwt. gr. dwt. dwt. gr. 



Hardest — Silver, solder 1 

Hard 1 

Easy 1 

Best hard , 1 

Medium , 1 

Easy 1 

Common 1 

Enameling. » 1 

Enameling 1 

Filigree .. 

Quick running o 1 

Chain 1 

Easy chain , 1 

Common , 1 

Common easy 1 

Very common 1 



*Silver solders recommended for special work. 






5 

4 

5 

6 
9 
5 
10 


io 

12 




9 

8 

12 

15 





12 

'6 
*6 















10 


16 




1 
2 
2 
















15 







8 







4 







9 

































'2 
2 
8 
3 


2 
. . 


3 12 
10 






.. 
. . 


10 






.. 
. . 1 oz. 


12 
1 cz. 



cleaned each time prior to applying the 
salt. The salt in contact v^^ith the solder- 
ing iron forms great bubbles, and easily 
scales away from the surface of the parts 
to be soldered. It is advisable to use cal- 
'cined borax ; i.e., borax from which the 
water of crystallization has been driven 
out by heat, as it does not become so in- 
flated as ordinary borax. Borax dissolves 
the metallic oxides forming on the joint. 

To avoid the difficulty mentioned, in- 
stead of borax use its component parts, 
boric acid and sodium carbonate. The heat 
of the soldering iron acting upon them 
produces an excellent flux. 

2.— Mix equal parts of neutral zinc ■" 
chloride, free from iron, and powdered sal 
ammoniac. To use, dissolve 1 part of the 
salt in 3 or 4 parts of water. 

3. — For hard-soldering aluminum 
bronze use a mixture of equal parts of 
cryolite and barium chloride as a flux. 

4. — For hard-soldering copper and cop- 
per alloys use finely powdered cryolite, 
or a mixture of 2 parts powdered cryolite 
and 1 part phosphoric acid. 

5. — For soldering iron with cast iron 
use a flux composed of equal parts of cast- 



iron filings and calcined borax. Pulverize 
this black, glassy mixture, and spread the 
powder on the seam. 

6. — For soldering steel, melt in an 
earthen vessel 3 parts of borax, 2 parts of 
colophony, 1 part of carbonate of potash, 
1 part powdered hard soap to which 3 
parts of pulverized glass and 2 parts ol 
stoel filings have been added. Run th.' 
melted mass on cold sheet iron. When 
completely cooled, break in pieces and 
grind finp. Apply to the surfaces to be 
joined a few minutes before uniting them. 

DETAILED FORMULAS FOR 
SOLDERS 
Soft Solders 

Soft solder, or tin solder, can be used 
to solder many different metals, gold, sil- 
ver, lead, copper, and steel, as well as 
brass, wrought iron and zinc. Its prin- 
cipal use, however, is in ordinary tin- 
smith's work, for which tin plate, zinc 
and sheet brass are the materials most 
frequently employed. Soft solder can be 
used for any purpose where the soiaered 
articles need not be heated much above 



[296] 



(Soft Solders) 



(Hard Solders) 



the boiling point of water, so that there 
is no danger of its melting. 

For ordinary tinsmith's work, where 
the resistance of the solder to acids, etc., 
is of less importance, it is customary to 
use mixtures of tin and lead, in varying 
proportions according to different pur- 
poses and according to the required melt- 
ing point of the solder. Experts have 
taken much pains to make accurate deter- 
minations in this important matter, and 
the following table gives the fusing point 
(Centigrade) of a solder containing a 
given amount of lead to 100 parts of tin : 
Fusing Point, Density of 
Lead. Deg. O. the Alloy. 

16.5 194 7.927 

30 194 7.994 

33.3 194 8.109 

40 194 8.234 

45 187 8.267 

50 187 8.408 

60 181 8.447 

66.6 181 8.726 

100 197 8.864 

119 197 9.038 

125 210 9.270 

179 210 9.433 

200 235 9.554 

233 235 9.640 

250 235 9.770 

268 243 9.797 

300 » 246 9.939 

358 246 10.052 

536 270 10.331 

715 283 10.595 

880 292 10.751 

1072 292 10.815 

It will be seen that the alloys of tin and 
lead become denser and less readily fusi- 
ble as the contents of lead are increased. 
According to other experiments, the fusing 
points ot the alloys are as given below : 

Fusing Point. 
Lead. Tin. Deg. C. 

207 118 189 

207 354 180 

207 708 190 

621 236 211 

1242 118 270 

Before the solders really melt, they 
soften considerably, and the following 
table gives the softening point of some 
alloys : 

Softening Melting 
Point, Point, 

Lead. Tin. Deg. C. Deg. C. 
1035 236 185 189 
1242 236 189 194 to 195 
1449 236 192 198 
1656 236 202 208 to 210 



Alloys Used Specially for Solders : 

Fusing Point, 
Tin. Lead. Deg. C. 

1180 4140 240 

1180 3105 223 

1180 2070 200 

1180 1242 181 

1180 1035 185 

1180 828 190 

Composition of Ordinary Soft Solder. — 
Lead, 207; tin, 118. 

Weak Soft Solder.— Lead, 207; tin, 
236. 

Strong Soft Solder. — Lead, 414; tin, 
118. 

Fluid Solder.— Lead, 621; tin, 590. 

Fluid solder is prepared by making the 
given mixture and letting it stand until 
partially hardened, when the part which 
is still fluid is poured off. In using this, 
it is poured into large seams, and works 
extremely well. The stiffened part can be 
used as ordinary solder. 

If the alloys are to be made in small 
quantities, it requires very sensitive scales 
to weigh the metals accurately. The 
composition of some varieties of tin sol- 
der is given below, in round numbers, 
with the fusing point of each. They are 
numbered according to their fluidity. No. 
1 being the hardest. 

1. — Lead, 2 ; tin, 1. Fusing point, 
240° C. 

2. — Lead, 1 ; tin, 1. Fusing point, 
200° C. 

3.— Tin, 2 to 2%; lead, 1. Fusing 
point, 185 to 190° C. 

4. — Lead, 10; tin, 177. Fusing point, 
about 180° C. 

Bismuth Solder. — For some purposes 
even the soft solders of tin and lead are 
too diflScult of fusion, and in this case 
alloys of tin, lead, and bismuth are em- 
ployed. This is a most excellent solder, 
but its use is limited to very special pur- 
poses, on account of the expensiveness 
of bismuth. For ordinary work, also, 
there is no need of such an extremely 
low fusing point. (See Fusible Metals 
in chapter on AixOYS.) 

Hard Solders 

In treating of soft solders, it was shown 
that the fusing point of these composi- 
tions varies considerably. The variations 
are still greater in the case of hard sol- 
ders, whose composition is such that they 
melt only on being brought to stronsc 
red heat. Some of them can be melted 
in the ordinary way, with the aid of a 
soldering iron, while in the case of others,. 



[297] 



(Hard Solders) 



(German Silver Solders) 



a special apparatus, such as a bellows, 
must be employed, or the whole object 
to be soldered must be strongly heated. 
The numerous kinds of hard solders, 
with different fusing points, are made 
necessary by the difference in the nature 
of the various metals and metallic com- 
positions which may require soldering. 

Yellow Hard Solders.— 1.— Very Hard. 
— a. — Applebaum's Compositions. — 1. — 
Copper, 58; zinc, 42. 
b.— Sheet brass, 85.42 ; zinc, 13.58. 
c. — Karmarsch's Composition. — Brass, 
7 ; zinc, 1. 

(3. — ^Prechtl's Composition. -— Conper, 
53.30 ; zinc, 43.10 ; tin, 1.30 ; lead, 0.30. 

2. — The foregoing compositions have 
the yellow color of brass, are very strong, 
and require very high temperatures for 
melting, so that they can be used for 
copper, steel, and all kinds of iron. The 
ones next given melt more easily than 
the first, and are suitable for all kinds 
of work with brass. 

a.— Sheet brass, 81.12 ; zinc, 18.88. 
b._Copper, 54.08 ; zinc, 45.29. 
c. — Brass, 3 to 4 ; zinc, 1. 
d.— Brass, 78.26; zinc, 17.41; silver, 
4.33. This is somewhat expensive on ac- 
count of the silver, but has the valuable 
property of being at once tenacious and 
ductile, and can be worked into wire with 
hammer or rollers. 

3.— Still softer are: a.— Brass, 5; 
zinc, 2.5. 

b. — Brass, 5; zinc, 5. 
Half White.— 1.— Copper, 53.3; zinc, 
46.7. 

2. — Brass, 12 ; zinc, 4 to 7 ; tin, 1. 
3.— Brass, 22 ; zinc, 10 ; tin, 1. 
4.— Copper, 44; zinc, 49; tin, 3.20; 
lead, 120. 

1 (Volk's hard solder) and 4 (Prechtl's 
half white) are quite readily fusible. 
White.— 1.— Brass, 20; zinc, 1; tin, 4. 
2. — Brass, 11 ; zinc, 1 ; tin, 2. 
3. — Brass, 6; zinc, 4; tin, 10. 
4._Copper, 57.44; zinc, 27.98; tin, 
14.58. 

Solders Prepared from the Pure Met- 
als. 

Copper. Zinc. Tin. Lead. 

Very hard 59.94 42.06 i 

Very hard 58.33 41.67 

Hard 50.00 50.00 

Soft 33.34 66.66 

Soft, half white 44.00 49.90 3.30 1.20 

Soft white 57.44 27.98 14.58 

Soft 72.00 18.00 4.00 

Soft, Volk's .... 53.30 46.70 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


12.58 




1.00 




1.00 





1.00 




2.00 




4.00 




5.00 


1.00 


20.00 


2.(M) 


2.00 


8.00 


2.00 


4.00 


12.00 30.00 


17.25 





18.88 





Solders of Brass and Zinc. 

Brass, 

Very hard 85.42 

Very hard 7.00 

Hard 3.00 

Hard 4.00 

Soft 5.00 

Soft 5.00 

Half white 12.00 

Half white 44.00 

White 40.00 

White 22.00 

White 18.00 

Very ductile 78.25 

For brazier's work .... 81.12 

Brass Solders. 

Yellow, hard... 5.3.30 43.10 1.30 0.30 

Half White, soft 44.00 49.90 3.30 1.20 

White 57.44 27.98 14.58 

German Silver Solders 

The solders thus classified, as their 
name implies, are used principally for sol- 
dering German silver. This alloy contains 
nickel and is very hard and white, and it 
requires solders which have corresponding 
qualities. German silver belongs among 
the alloys which are very diflBcult of fu- 
sion, and the solders used for it are those 
which have very high fusing points, and 
belong therefore to the general class of 
hard solders. They have great strength, 
and are used for other purposes, in cases 
where the object to be soldered is exposed 
to heavy strain. German silver solder can 
be given a color very much like that of 
steel, and is much used in steel work. 

In regard to its composition, it bears 
this relation to ordinary hard solders, that 
while these may be considered to be brass 
with an admixture of zinc, German silver 
solder may be called a mixture of zinc and 
German silver solder. It is softer or hard- 
er according to the greater or less amount 
of zinc contained in it ; but if this ex- 
ceeds a certain limit, the solder becomes 
very brittle. 

There pre two principal varieties of 
German silver solder, called, relativejy, 
hard and soft. The former is exceedingly 
strong, on account of the large amount of 
nickel it contains, and is sometimes called 
"steel solder," being generally used for 
soldering steel. 

Soft German Silver Solders. — 1. — Cop- 
per, 4.5 ; zinc, 7.0 ; nickel, 1.0. 

2. — Copper, 35.0 ; zinc, 56.5 ; nickel, S.5. 
3. — German silver, 5 ; zinc, 4. 
1 and 2 are quite similar in composition, 
and have correspondingly similar proper- 
ties ; in 3, German silver, that is, a com- 
pound of cooper, zinc, and nickel, is used 
directly, and in preparing this solder it is 
necessary to know the exact composition 
of the alloy, or to try the solder in small 



[298] 



(Silver Solders) 



(Gold Solders) 



quantities, in order to judge of the cor- 
rect amount of zinc to be added. It may 
be assumed that the proportions are cor- 
rect, when the metallic mixture is lus- 
trous, and brittle enough to allow of pul- 
verizing when hot, and when it will be- 
come fluid in contact with a red-hot sol- 
dering iron. 

Hard German Silver Solders (Steel 
Solders ) . — 1. — Copper, 35 ; zinc, 50.5 ; 
nickel, 9.5. 

2. — Copper, 38; zinc, 50; nickel, 12. 

1 requires a very hot flame for melt- 
ing, and 2 can usually be melted only by 
applying bellows to the flame. 

Silver Solders 

The solders which contain silver are 
very strong and tenacious, and are used 
not only to solder silver, but also_ for 
other metals, in cases where the objects 
to be soldered require great power of re- 
sistance. Tavo principal kinds of silver 
solder are distinguished, hard and soft, the 
former consisting of silver and copper, 
with sometimes a little zinc, and the latter 
containing, besides the metals just men- 
tioned, a small amount of tin. 

Hard Silver Solder. — According to the 
purpose for which this is intended, differ- 
ent compositions are used varying in fusi- 
bility. Silver workers use different solders 
for alloys of varying degrees of fineness, 
and the same ones are not always em- 
ployed for resoldering as for the first 
soldering. 

Very Hard (for Fine Silver Articles). 
— Copper, 1 ; silver, 4. 

Hard. — 1. — Copper, 1 ; silver, 20 ; brass, 
9. 

2. — Copper, 2 ; silver, 28 ; brass, 10. 

Soft.—l.— Silver, 2 ; brass, 1. 

2. — Silver, 3; copper, 2; zinc, 1. 

3.— Silver, 10; brass, 10; tin, 1. 

4. — These solders serve principally for 
completing the soldering of silver articles 
done with hard solder, by retouching im- 
perfect places. Some silver workers use 
for this purpose copper and silver alloys 
mixed with zinc, as for example, the fol- 
lowing : Copper, 4 ; silver, 12 ; zinc, 1 ; or : 

5. — .Silver, 5; brass, 6; zinc, 2. The 
latter is readily fusible, but also rather 
brittle, and is frequently used for solder- 
ing ordinary silverware. 

Solders for Iron, Steel, Oast Iron, and 
Copper. — 1, — Silver, 10 ; brass, 10. 

2. — Silver, 20; copper, 30; zinc, 10. 

3.— Silver, 30; copper, 10; tin, 0.5. 

Soft Silver Solders. — Silver, 60; brass, 
60; zinc, 5. 

In the case of solders which are pre- 
pared with brass, care should be taken 
that neither of the metals in the composi 
tion cpntains iron, as it has been found 



by experience that the presence of a very 
trifling amount of this is sufficient to 
change the character of the alloy mate- 
rially, making it brittle. 

Silver solders are used in the form of 
fine filings or wire, the latter method of 
preparing ^ it being especially adapted to 
the tenacious and ductile nature of the 
alloy. 

In the large manufactories for silver 
ware it has become the custom in recent 
years to use the same alloy for solder- 
ing as that of which the silver article is 
made. It is used in the form of filings, 
and melted into the seams so that the ob- 
ject and the solder are really homogeneous. 

Gold Solders 

Gold, both pure and various alloyed, 
is used to a considerable extent in solder- 
ing, but on account of its expensiveness it 
is limited to articles made of gold or 
platinum, or the most delicate small steel 
objects. 

Gold objects are of different colors, ac- 
cording to the kind and proportion of the 
other metals used. There are yellow, red, 
white, and green gold alloys. The color of 
the special alloy should of course be in 
harmony with the color of the object to 
be soldered, in order that the seams may 
be as inconspicuous as possible. 

The fusibility of gold alloys varies as 
much as their color, and is lowered as the 
amount of gold in the alloy increases. 
Harder solders should therefore be used 
for objects of fine gold than for a poorer 
quality. 

Gold solders are made from gold and 
silver, gold and copper, and still more fre- 
quently from a mixture of all three of 
these metals ; in some cases zinc is added, 
to make the solder softer. But this must 
not be done if the soldered articles are to 
be colored, as the zinc alloy will turn 
black in coloring. For objects which are 
to be wholly or partially enameled, the 
solders made of gold and silver, or of 
gold, silver, and copper, are the only ones 
used, and these are called "enamel 
solders." 

Hard Gold Solder.— Gold 750-1000 fine 
(18 carat), 9; silver, 2; copper, 1. 

This is used for the finest gold articles. 

Soft Gold Solder.— Gold, 750-1000 fine 
(18 carat), 12; silver, 7; copper, 3. 

This is likewise used for fine gold, but is 
much more fusible than the one first 
given. 

Gold Solder for Articles 583-1000 Fine 
(14 Carat).— Gold, 583-1000 fiine (14 
carat), 3; silver, 2; copper, 1, 

2.— Gold, 583-1000 fine (14 carat), 4; 
silver, 1 ; copper, 1. 



[299] 



(Aluminum Solders) 



(Solders for Brass) 



Gold Solder for Ordinary Gold Ware 
Less than 583-1000 (14 Oarat) Fine.— 1. 
— Fine gold, 1; silver 2; copper, 1. 

2. — Fine gold, 1 ; copper or silver, 1. 

Soft Gold Solder.— 1.— Fine gold, 
11.94; silver, 54.74; copper, 28.17; zinc, 
5.01. 

2._Gold, 583-1000 fine (14 carat), 10; 
silver, 5; :dnc, 1. 

The degree of fusibility of an enamel 
must decide the euestion as to which one 
of these compositions to use. If it is very 
liard, the l>rst solder is the proper one, 
as otherwise the seams would become so 
hiot during the process of melting the 
enamel that the solder itself would melt. 
For ordinary gold ware soft enamels are 
generally used, and in this case the softer 
solder can be employed. It is easily 
melted with the common soldering pipe; 
the harder can also be melted in the same 
way, but the use of a special apparatus 
makes the process much easier and 
quicker. 

Aluminum Solders 

Since the discovery of aluminum and 
its production in considerable quantities, 
it has become a common material in the 
manufacture of various artistic objects. 
One of the greatest difficulties, however, 
in the past has been that there was no 
perfect solder for aluminum, and various 
alloys were used which gave unsatisfac- 
tory results. This difficulty has now been 
overcome, and it is possible to solder the 
metal so perfectly that in tests which 
"have been made the metal itself broke be- 
fore the solder gave way. 

The French manufacturers use five 
Mnds of solders for aluminum, all con- 
sisting of zinc, copper and aluminum in 
different proportions. These are given be- 
low. Parts by weight. , 

1. — Zinc, 80; copper, 8; aluminum, 12. 

2. — Zinc, 85; copper, 6; aluminum, 9. 

3. — Zinc, 88; copper, 5; aluminum, 7. 

4. — Zinc, 90; copper, 4; aluminum, 6. 

5. — Zinc, 94; copper, 2; aluminum, 4. 
There are also other compositions besides 
these. Bourbouze recommends, for ob- 
jects which are to be further manipulated 
or worked on after soldering, a mixture 
of 45 parts of tin and 10 of aluminum. 

6. — Frischmuth gives the following al- 
loys for solders: 

a. — Silver, 10; copper, 10; aluminum, 
•20; tin, CO; zinc, 30. 

b.— Tin, 95 to 99 ; bismuth, 5 to 8. 

The composition b (an ordinary soft 
•solder) is adapted for soldering alumi- 
num by means of the common soldering 
iron. , , 

In preparing aluminum solders, tne al- 
loy of copper and aluminum is always 



made first and the zinc added. First of 
all the copper is melted, and the alumi- 
num put in gradually, usually in three or 
four portions. The 'two metals are of 
very different density, and the mixture 
should be stirred with an iron rod, to 
unite them as far as possible. Imme- 
diately after adding the last portion of 
the aluminum, the zinc is put in, and at 
the same time some fat or rosin is thrown 
into the kettle, the whole is quickly 
stirred, the kettle removed from the fire, 
and the allqv. poured into iron molds 
which have been rubbed with coal oil 
or benzine. The whole work must be 
done as quickly as possible after the 
addition of the zinc, or the solder will 
not remain in a suitable condition. 

The zinc used should contain no iron, 
as a very small amount of the latter 
would materially affect the fusibility and 
durability of the solder. The purpose of 
the fat or rosin is to prevent the oxida- 
tion of the zinc, and, as before observed, 
the work must proceed as rapidly as pos- 
sible from this moment, as the tempera- 
lure of the mass is so high that if it 
were left long in fusion much of the zinc 
would evaporate. 

On account of its resistance to chemical 
influences, aluminum solder is frequently 
used by dentists to unite the metal lie 
parts of artificial teeth, but alloys for 
this purpose must not contain copper ex- 
cept in very small quantities, as this 
metal is easily attacked by acids. 

Platinum and Aluminum Solder. — 
Gold, 30; platinum, 1; silver, 20; alum- 
inum, 100. 

Aluminum and Gold Solder. — Gold, 50; 
silver, 10; copper, 10; aluminum, 20. 

SOLDERS FOR SPECIAL PUR- 
POSES 
Brass 

For soldering with sheet brass with a 
copper, use a solder made of 2 parts tin, 
1 part lead, by weight ; melt, mix and 
pour in small bars. For flux dissolve 
zinc in muriatic acid until no more will 
dissolve, add about one-tenth its bulk of 
sal ammoniac and dilute with quarter its 
bulk of water. Wet the surfaces to be 
soldered with this solution, using a piece 
of wood or copper wire for this purpose. 
Then, by rubbing the surfaces with the 
tinned point of the copper, a coating of 
tin will be imparted. Put both surfaces 
thus prepared together and heat by ap- 
plying the copper and a little solder to the 
outside of the seam. The copper should 
be well tinned on the point, which may 
be done by heating the copper hot enough 
to freely melt pure tin. Rub a piece of 



[300] 



(Soldering Platinum) 



(Soldering Steel) 



sal ammoniac on a brick, then rub the 
copper point on the brick, with tin or 
solder in contact with the point. The 
tinning of the copper point is essential 
for soldering. 

Britannia Ware, White Solder 

Tin, 50 lb.; copper, 4 lb.; lead, 2 lb.; 
antimony, 4 lb. 
Glaziers' Solder 

Lead, 5 parts; tin, 1 2-3 parts. This 
melts at 500° F. 

Iron 

To solder cast iron, clean the place to 
be soldered well, then brush it with a 
brass wire brush until the iron becomes 
yellow. It will be found that the solder 
can now be applied without any trouble. 

Nickel, Solders for 

For fine or high-grade nickel : 3 parts 
of yellow brass, 1 part of sterling silver. 
For low-grade nickel : 15 parts of yellow 
brass, 5 parts of sterling silver, 4 parts of 
zinc (pure or plate zinc). Melt the brass 
and silver with borax for a flux and add 
the zinc in small pieces, stir with an iron 
rod, pour into a slab mold and cool slow- 
ly, when it can be rolled thin for cutting. 

Pewter and Britannia Metal 

1. — Tin, 10 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; bis- 
muth, 1 to 3 parts. 

2. — Take tin, 3 parts; lead, 1^^ parts; 
bismuth, 1% parts. 

3. — Solder for Tin or Pewter. — Tin, 2 
parts ; lead, 1 part ; bismuth, 1 part. 

Platinum Soldered to Gold 

To make platinum adhere firmly to 
gold by soldering it is necessary that a 
small quantity of fine or 18-carat gold 



shall be sweated into the surface of the 
platinum at nearly a white heat, so that 
the gold shall soak into the face of the 
platinum ; ordinary solder will then ad- 
here firmly to the face obtained in this 
manner. Hard solder acts by partially 
fusing and combining with the surfaces 
to be joined, and platinum alone will not 
fuse or combine with any solder at a 
temperature anything like the fusing 
point of ordinary gold solder. 

Steel 

Steel Soldering. — This recipe, accord- 
ing to the Werkmeister Zeitung, is use- 
ful for cases when the steel is not to 
be soldered at an elevation of temperature 
to the bright red. Dissolve scraps of cast 
steel in as small a quantity as possible 
of nitric acid, add finely pulverized borax 
and stir vigorously until a fluid paste is 
formed, then dilute by means of sal am- 
moniac and put in a bottle. When sol- 
dering is to be done, apply a thin layer 
of the solution to the two parts to be 
soldered, and when these have been car- 
ried to ordinary redness, and the mass is 
consequently plastic, beat lightly on the 
anvil with a flat hammer. 

Steel Wire, To Solder.— Mix 1 lb. lac- 
tic acid, 1 lb. glycerine and 8 lb. water, 
so as to have a clear solution. This is 
non-corrosive, but does not work as quick- 
ly as the ordinary soldering acid. 

Steel Joints, Solder for, — Brass, 3 
parts ; copper, 1% parts ; silver, 28i/^ 
parts. 

Steel, Hard Soldering. — Solder will not 
run on iron quite so well as on silver or 
brass. See that the steel is clean and 
bright, use the borax as a thick paste and 
the operation must be concluded quickly. 



r :^oi ] 



INDEX 



Page 

Acid-proof Cements 1T8 

Air 70 

Air Baths 119 

Alloys and Amalgams 153-176 

Aluminum Cleansing 193 

Aluminum Coloring 208 

Aluminum Plating 221 

Aluminum Solders 300 

Amalgams 173-176 

Amber Varnish 275 

Angle Shaft Coupling 6 

Angular Measure 57 

Animal Power — Horse 70 

Aniline Colors 87 

Animal Substances, Specific Gravity 

and Weight 62 

Annealing Metals 249 

Apothecaries' Liquid Measure 48 

Apothecaries' Weight 49 

Aquarium Cements 178 

Areas and Circumferences 4G, 47 

Avoirdupois Weight 49 

Axle Grease 260 

Babbitt Metal 169 

Bali-Bearing Devices 20 

Balls, Weight of 70 

Battery Cells 80 

Bearing Metals 163 

Bell Metal 161 

Belting, Transmission of Pov^er by . . 23 

Belts, Rubber 286 

Bible, Weights & Measures of 57, 58 

Bismuth Alloys 159 

Bismuth Amalgams 174 

Blacking Iron and Steel. 213 

Bluing Iron and Steel 214 

Board Measure 6.5, 66 

Boiler Tubes 73 

Brass 164 

Brass, Bronzing 209 

Brass Cleaning 193, 196 

Brass Coloring 208 

Brass Plating 221 

Brass, Solders for 300 

Brazing Metals 250 

Britannia Metals 171 

Bronze Cleansing 196 

Bronze Plating 222 

Bronzing 265 

Bronzing Iron and Steel 214 

Bronzing Metals 210 

Browning Iron and Steel 214 



Bunsen Burners. 



Page 
. 103 



Cadmium Alloys 160 

Cadmium Amalgams 174 

Cams 14, 16 

Carbonization 146 

Casehardening Metals 251 

Casein Cements 178 

Celluloid 285 

Celluloid Cements 179 

Cements, Glues, Pastes, etc 177-192 

Centrifugation 130 

Chain Gear 4 

Chain Lubricants 261 

Chemical Manipulations 85-149 

Circles 34, 36,. 40, 42 

Circular Measure 56 

Clarification 129 

Cleansing of Metals 193-206 

Cloth, Cement for 186 

Cloth to Metal, Cementing 183 

Clutches 4-6 

eolation 129 

Coloring of Metals 207-217 

Conductivity, Electrical 78 

Copal Varnish 278 

Copper Alloys 157, 158 

Copper Amalgams 174 

Copper Bronzing 211 

Copper Cleaning 193-196 

Copper Coloring 210 

Copper Dipping 232 

Copper Nickel Alloys 161 

Copper Oxidizing 212 

Copper Plating 223-224 

Copper Tin Alloys 161 

Cord Measure 65 

Cork Work 97 

Couplings, Shaft 6 

Crystalization 139 

Cubic Measure 48 

Decimal Equivalents 57 

Decoction . . . , 112 

Decolorization 131 

Decrepitation 145 

Deflagration 145 

Dialysis 1,S9 

Diamond Measure 49 

Digestion 112 

Distilling 123-128 

Drafting Devices 22 

Driers 266 



[803] 



Index 



Index 



Page 

Dry Measure 48 

Drying and Dessicating 113 

Ebonite and Vulcanite 288 

Edulcoration 128 

Elastic Glue 188 

Electrical Engineering 75 

Electrical Horse Power 80 

Electrical Standards 76 

Electro-Magnetic System 76 

Electrometallurgy 219-239 

Ellipses 38, 43 

Elutriation 109 

Emulsions 140-142 

Engines, Types of 24, 25 

Escapements 8 

Evaporation 121 

Expansion of Liquids 68 

Expansion of Solids 68 

Expression Ill 

Fillers 266 

Filtering 131-137 

Fire Arms Cleaning 197 

Fireproof Adhesives 191 

Flexible Shafts 6 

Flour Pastes 190 

Foreign Weights and Measures .... 50-52 

French and English Equivalents . . 55 

Friction 68 

Friction Gears 2 

Fuels 102 

Fusible Alloys 159 

Fusion 143 

Galvanizing 238 

Gases, Specific Gravity of 63 

Gearing 1, 10-14 

Gearing, Simple Rules on 74 

Gears, Toothed , 1 

Geographical Measure 48 

Geometrical Constructions 31, 33 

Geometrical Figures 31 

German Silver Polishing 197 

German SUver Solders 298 

Glass 241-248 

Glass, Cements for 179 

Glass Drilling 242 

Glass Etching 243 

Glass Frosting 245 

Glass, Ground 24o 

Glass Silvering 246-248 

Glue 187 

Gold Alloys 158, 167 

Gold Amalgams 1 J5 

Gold Coloring 212 

Gold Dipping • • • 233 

Gold Plating. 225-227 

Gold Solders 299 



Page 

Governors 19, 22, 23 

Graduates 99 

Granulation 108 

Grinding and Pulverizing 105 

Gun Metal 162 

Gutta Percha 286 

Hardening Metals 252 

Hard Solders 297 

Heat and Electrical Conductivity ... 78 
Heat, Mechanical Equivalents of . . . 66 

Heat Treatment of Metals 249-255 

Height and Weight Table 82 

Horse Power Estimating 73 

Hot Air Baths 114 

Household Measures 49, 50 

Hyperbolas 38 

Ice and Snow 70 

Ice, Strength of 70 

Ignition 142 

Incineration 146 

Inclined Planes 28 

Infusion 112 

Insulating Varnishes 279 

Interest Table 81 

Iron and Steel Coloring 213-215 

Iron and Steel Polishing 197-199 

Iron, Paints for 272 

Iron Plating 227 

Japans 267 

Jewish Money 58 

Labels, Paste for. 192 

Lacquers 268-270 

Land Measure 48 

Lathe, Index of 73 

Leather Cements 180 

Leather to Metal, Cementing 184 

Leather Varnishes 280 

Leverage 28 

Levers 26 

Levigation 108 

Linear Measure 48 

Lines and Angles 34 

Liquid Glue 188 

Liquid Measure 48 

Liquids, Specific Gravity and Weight 62 

Log Measure 65 

Lubricants 257-263 

Maceration Ill 

Machine Elements 27 

Manganese Alloys 158 

Manual Power 71 

Marble to Cement 178 

Marine Glue 189 

Materials, Strength of 69 



[304] 



Index 



Index 



Page 

Measuring Liquids 99 

Mechanical Movements 1-26 

Mechanical Powers 29 

Mensuration 44-47, 56 

Mercury Gilding 238 

Metals, Cements for 181 

Metals, Cleaning of 199-201 

Metals, Cleansing of 193-206 

Metals, Coloring of 207-217 

Metals Specific Weight ^. . 72 

MetalSi Strength of 69 

Metals to Glass, Cementing 182 

Metals to Leather, Cementing 183 

Metals, Weight of 72 

Metric Equivalents, Approximate ... 53 

Metric Measures 53, 54, 55 

Minerals, Hardness of 66 

Minerals, Specific Gravity 60 

Minerals, Volume of 60 

Minerals, Weight of 60 

Mortality 82 

Movements, Miscellaneous 16-22 

Mucilages 189 

Nails, Sizes of 73 

Nautical Measure 48 

Nickel, Cleaning of 201 

Nickel, Coloring of 215 

Nickeling, Cold 234 

Nickel Plating 228-230 

Paints 271-273 

Paints, Varnishes, etc 265-284 

Parchment Glue 189 

Pastes 190 

Patina 209 

Pentagons 36 

Percolation 137-139 

Pewter 172 

Pewter, Cleaning of 202 

Phosphor Bronze 162 

Pickling Baths 220 

Pipes 70 

Pipettes 100 

Platinum Alloys 168 

Porphyrization 107 

Precipitation 128 

Precipitation and Separation 128-142 

Pulleys 28 

Pulleys, Calculating Speed of 74 

Pulleys, Paper on 184 

Pulverization 109 

Putty 191 

Ratchet Movements 6-8 

Reduction 145 

Resistance 77 

Resistance and Weight Table 78 

Resistance of Metals and Alloys .... 77 



Page 

Roman Money 58 

Roman Notation 81 

Rope Gear 4 

Rubber 286-288 

Rubber Boots, Cement for 185 

Rubber Cement 184 

Rubber, Repairing 290 

Rubber, Solvents for 290 

Rubber, Working on 289 

Rust 202-206 

Scales 100 

Screw Toggle Press 16 

Sea Water 69 

Sewing Machine Oil 262 

Sheet Metal Gauge 75 

Shellac Varnishes 281 

Ship's Time 59 

Sifting 107 

Silver Alloys 159 

Silver Amalgams 175 

Silver, Cleaning of 206 

Silver Cold Dipping 235 

Silver, Coloring of 215 

Silvering Glass 246-248 

Silver Non-Electric 236 

Silver Oxidizing 216 

Silver Plating 230-232 

Silver Platinizing 216 

Silver Solders 299 

Sizes 273 

Slicing 104 

Softening Steel 252 

Soft Solders 296 

Soldering Fluids 293 

Soldering Pastes 293 

Soldering Powders 294 

Solders and Soldering 293-301 

Solution 109' 

Specific Gravity 146-147 

Specific Gravity, Table of 64 

Sponge, Rubber 290 

Springs 19, 23 

Sprocket Wheel 4 

Steam Pressure 67 

Steel, Solders for 301 

Stereotype Metal 172 

Stones and Bricks, Strength of 69 

Stones, Specific Gravity 59 

Stones. Weight of 59 

Straining 129 

Sublimation 146 

Syphons 97 

Technical Substances 86-93 

Temperature, Table of 67 

Tempering Steel 252 

Thermometer Scales 148, 149 

Timber 69 



[305] 



Index 



/ 



Index ^ 
;gi?3 7 » r^ 

^^^^i 7 Page 
Waterproof Adhesives .• y . j^. .../». . 192 

Waterproof Glue vA:^-.^. . 192 

Waterproof Paint 273 

Wedges 28 

Weight and Volume of Bodies 63 

Weights and Measures 48 

Welding 254 

White Alloys 170 

White Metal 170 

Whitewash 283 

Wind, Force of 72 

Wind Mills 71 

Wine and Spirit Measure 49 

Wire Apparatus 93-95 

Wire Gauges 79 

Wire, Weight of 79 

Woods, Specific Gravity 61 

Woods, Weight of 61 

Zinc Alloys 159 

Zinc Amalgams 176 

Zinc, Coating With 238 

Zinc Coloring 216-217 

Zinc Plating 232 



; 



Page 
Time 57, 58 

Tin Alloys. 159, 169 

Tin Amalgams 176 

Tin Non-Electric 237 

Tin Plating, Electrical 232 

Tire Cements 185 

Trituration 106 

Troy Weight 49 

Tungsten Bronzes 178 

Type Metals 172 

Units of Force 77 

Universal Joints 6 

Vaporization 121 

Varnishes 274-283 

Varnishes for Rubber 291 

Volumes and Surface Areas 44, 45 

Wallpaper 74 

Wash Bottle 96 

Watches at Sea 59 

Watch Oil 262 

Water, Facts About 69 



[306] 



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